Kiku

Learn

The grammar path: short, explicit notes. Each gives the pattern, what it means, how it attaches, two or three examples, and the pattern it is most often confused with.

Kana

Hiragana and katakana come before everything else. Look them up in the chart, then drill them until you read each one without thinking.

  • Kana chart: hiragana and katakana, with dakuten, handakuten and youon
  • Kana drill: type the reading of each kana, with spaced review

Every note here is a draft waiting for review by a Japanese teacher. Notes so far are for N5, most of N4 and the first part of N3.

Level tags. The test's organizers have not published grammar lists since the 2010 revision, so a tag means "commonly listed at". Each tag follows where two widely used lists agree; where they disagree, or only one lists the point, the note says so.

Source: JLPT FAQ: why the Test Content Specifications are no longer available after the 2010 revision (jlpt.jp, 2010, read 2026-10-08)

N580 notes

is; am; are (the copula)

Says that A is B. です is polite; だ is its plain form, used with friends and in plain-style writing. After an い-adjective, use です alone (高たかいです), never だ.

How it attaches
Noun, polite
Noun, plain
な-adjective
い-adjective (polite only)

  1. I am a student.

  2. Today is Sunday, you know.

  3. This room is quiet, isn't it?

Often confused with

です follows nouns and adjectives; ます attaches to verbs. A verb never takes です directly: 行いきます, not 行いくです.

I drink coffee every morning.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

is not (the negative of だ and です)

Negates a noun or な-adjective. ではない is more formal and common in writing; じゃない is spoken. Polite forms are じゃありません, ではありません and じゃないです.

How it attaches
Noun
な-adjective
Polite, formal

  1. I am not a teacher.

  2. That bag isn't mine.

  3. Tomorrow is not a day off.

Often confused with

い-adjectives make their own negative with くない: 高たかくない. Adding じゃない to an い-adjective does not negate it: 高たかいじゃない means "isn't it expensive!"

This bag is not expensive.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

was; were (the past of だ and です)

The past of a noun or な-adjective sentence. The negative past is じゃなかった, or politely じゃありませんでした.

How it attaches
Noun
な-adjective
Negative past

  1. It was rainy yesterday.

  2. When I was a child, I didn't like vegetables.

  3. The town wasn't quiet.

Often confused with

い-adjectives make their own past with かった: 楽たのしかったです. 楽たのしいでした is a common mistake.

The trip was fun.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

as for; the topic marker

Marks what the sentence is about. It is written は but read わ. It also sets one thing against another: 肉にくは食たべますが、魚さかなは食たべません.

How it attaches
Noun
Time word
After another particle

  1. I am an office worker.

  2. It's hot today, isn't it?

  3. I eat meat, but I don't eat fish.

Often confused with

は presents a topic the listener already has in mind; が picks out the subject, often new information or the answer to a question word. A question word as the subject takes が, never は: 誰だれが来きましたか.

Who came?

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

the subject marker

Marks the subject, especially new information and the answer to a question word. It also marks what exists, what is liked and what is wanted: 猫ねこがいます, 音楽おんがくが好すきです.

How it attaches
Subject
With 好すき, 上手じょうず, わかる, ほしい
Answering a question word

  1. It is raining outside.

  2. I understand a little Japanese.

  3. "Who made it?" "My mother made it."

Often confused with

が points at one subject; は sets up a topic. A question word as the subject takes only が, and the new information in the answer takes が too.

My mother is good at cooking.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

the object marker

Marks the direct object of a verb: what you eat, read or buy. It is written を and read お. It also marks a place you move through or leave: 公園こうえんを歩あるく, 家いえを出でる.

How it attaches
Object
Place moved through
Place left

  1. I eat bread every morning.

  2. I bought a ticket at the station.

  3. I took a walk in the park.

Often confused with

Some words that translate as English verbs take が, not を: 好すき (like), 上手じょうず (be good at), わかる (understand) and ほしい (want). 日本語にほんごをわかります is a common mistake.

I like dogs.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

at, on, in (a time); to (a place); in, at (where something is)

Marks a point in time, the place you go to, the place where something is, and the person you give to or meet. Relative time words such as 明日あした and 毎日まいにち take no に.

How it attaches
Point in time
Destination
Where something is
Person you meet or give to

  1. I get up at seven every morning.

  2. I want to go to Japan next year.

  3. There is a dictionary on the desk.

Often confused with

に marks where something is; で marks where an action happens: 図書館としょかんにいます, but 図書館としょかんで勉強べんきょうします.

I study at the library.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

to; toward (a direction)

Marks the direction of movement. It is written へ and read え. With verbs of going and coming, に and へ are usually interchangeable; へ puts the weight on the direction.

How it attaches
Destination
Before の

  1. I'm going back to my country for summer vacation.

  2. Where are you going?

  3. This is a letter to my mother.

Often confused with

へ shows direction only. に also marks a time, where something is, and the person you give to, where へ cannot be used: 七時しちじに, not 七時しちじへ.

I gave my friend a book.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

at, in (where an action happens); by, with, in (the means)

Marks the place where an action happens and the means or tool: by bus, with chopsticks, in Japanese.

How it attaches
Place of an action
Means, tool
Language

  1. I'm waiting in front of the station.

  2. I go to school by bicycle every day.

  3. I wrote a letter in Japanese.

Often confused with

で marks where something happens; に marks where something is, or where it goes: 公園こうえんで遊あそぶ, but 公園こうえんに行いく.

The children are in the park.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

and (joining nouns); with (a person)

Joins nouns into a complete list (A and B, and nothing else), and marks the person you do something with. As "and", it joins nouns only, never verbs or sentences.

How it attaches
Noun and noun
With a person

  1. I had bread and eggs this morning.

  2. I went to the sea with my family on Sunday.

  3. My older brother and I go to the same school.

Often confused with

と names every item; や gives examples and implies there are more. パンと卵たまご is the whole list; パンや卵たまご is "bread, eggs and so on".

There are eggs, milk and other things in the fridge.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

also; too; (with a negative) not ... either

Replaces は, が or を to say "also". With a negative it means "not ... either", and AもBも means "both A and B" or, with a negative, "neither A nor B". Other particles stay in front of it: 大阪おおさかにも.

How it attaches
In place of は or が
In place of を
After に, で, と

  1. I'm a student too.

  2. Yesterday I ate neither meat nor fish.

  3. I went to Kyoto. I went to Osaka too.

Often confused with

は sets up a topic, and can set it against others; も adds the topic to something already said. 私わたしは行いきません is simply "I won't go", though it can also mean "I, unlike the others, won't go"; 私わたしも行いきません means "I won't go either".

My brother is going, but I'm not.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

's; of (linking two nouns)

Links two nouns: an owner, a kind or origin, or any "B of A" relation. The first noun describes the second.

How it attaches
Owner
Kind, origin
Field, subject

  1. This is my umbrella.

  2. The Japanese teacher is fun.

  3. There is a bank in front of the station.

Often confused with

Two nouns are joined with の, but a な-adjective joins a noun with な: 静しずかな町まち, not 静しずかの町まち.

I live in a quiet town.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

the one; one(s) (standing for a noun)

After an adjective, a verb or a noun, の stands for a thing that is clear from context: 赤あかいの (the red one), 昨日きのう買かったの (the one I bought yesterday), 私わたしの (mine). A な-adjective takes な first: きれいなの.

How it attaches
い-adjective
な-adjective + な
Verb (plain)
Noun

  1. I'd rather have the white one than the black bag.

  2. Don't you have a cheaper one?

  3. That umbrella is mine.

Often confused with

Between two nouns, の shows a relation (先生せんせいの傘かさ, the teacher's umbrella); with no noun after it, の stands for the noun itself.

This is the teacher's umbrella.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

the question marker (at the end of a sentence)

Turns a polite sentence into a question; the word order does not change. In casual speech か is usually dropped and the voice rises: 行いく？

How it attaches
Polite sentence
With a question word

  1. Is that person a teacher?

  2. Will you come to school tomorrow?

  3. Where is the restroom?

Often confused with

At the end of a sentence, か asks a question; between two nouns, it means "or".

For a drink, coffee or tea would be good.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

A or B

Joins two choices, one or the other. It joins nouns, and also two questions: 行いきますか、行いきませんか.

How it attaches
Noun か noun
Two questions

  1. Please come on Monday or Tuesday.

  2. Let's go by train or bus.

  3. Will you have the meat or the fish?

Often confused with

か offers a choice of one; や lists several things that are all included.

On my days off I do the cleaning, the laundry and so on.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

and (among others); things like

Lists some examples from a larger set. It joins nouns only. Adding など at the end makes "and so on" explicit.

How it attaches
Noun や noun
With など

  1. There are books, notebooks and such on the desk.

  2. I like Japanese songs, movies and so on.

  3. I bought apples, bananas and other things at the supermarket.

Often confused with

や implies there is more than the items named; と names the whole list.

There are three of us in my family: my father, my mother and me.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(at the end of a sentence) I'm telling you; you know

Tells the listener something they do not know yet, or presses a point. Used too often with someone senior, it can sound pushy.

How it attaches
Polite sentence
Plain sentence

  1. This bread is good, you know.

  2. Oh, the train is here.

  3. Tomorrow is a day off, you know.

Often confused with

よ gives information the listener does not have; ね checks or shares something you both know. 寒さむいですよ warns; 寒さむいですね agrees.

It's cold today, isn't it?

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(at the end of a sentence) isn't it?; right?

Seeks or shows agreement about something both speakers know or feel. It also confirms a detail: 三時さんじですね.

How it attaches
Sharing a feeling
Confirming

  1. Nice weather, isn't it?

  2. This food is good, isn't it?

  3. The next train is at three, right?

Often confused with

ね assumes the listener knows or agrees; よ tells them something new. To tell someone the time, use よ, not ね.

The next train is at three.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(at the end of a sentence, to yourself) how ...!; I wish ...

Voices a feeling, mostly to yourself: wonder, envy or a wish. It is casual and goes on plain forms. With 〜たい or いい it expresses a wish: 行いきたいなあ.

How it attaches
Plain sentence
With 〜たい

  1. Wow, it's hot today.

  2. I really want to go to the sea.

Often confused with

なあ is said to yourself; ね is said to someone and asks them to agree.

It's hot, isn't it?

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

from ... to; from ... until

から marks a starting point in time or place, and まで the end point. Either can stand alone: 九時くじから (from nine), 駅えきまで (as far as the station). A verb before まで is in the dictionary form.

How it attaches
Time
Place
Verb (dictionary form)

  1. The bank is open from nine to three.

  2. It's a ten-minute walk from my house to the station.

  3. I'll wait at home until my mother comes back.

Often confused with

まで says how long something goes on (until); までに sets a deadline (by): 五時ごじまで待まつ, but 五時ごじまでに来くる.

Please be back by five.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

because; so

Gives a reason: [reason] から [result]. It follows plain or polite forms, and the result can be a request, an invitation or an opinion. The reason can also come after, as its own sentence ending in から.

How it attaches
Verb
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective + だ
Polite

  1. It's raining, so let's take a taxi.

  2. We don't have time, so please come quickly.

  3. I'm not going today, because I have a headache.

Often confused with

Both give a reason. から sounds more personal and direct, so it goes with opinions, invitations and commands; ので presents the reason as a plain fact and sounds softer.

I have a headache, so may I go home early?

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

because; since (softer)

Gives a reason as an objective fact, so it sounds polite and suits requests, excuses and formal speech. A noun or な-adjective takes な before ので: 雨あめなので.

How it attaches
Verb
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective + な

  1. It's cold, so may I close the window?

  2. Tomorrow is Sunday, so the bank is closed.

  3. I've caught a cold, so I'll stay home today.

Often confused with

Both give a reason. から sounds more personal and direct; ので sounds softer and more polite.

It's late, so let's go home.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

but; and (joining two clauses)

Joins two clauses with "but". It is a little formal and suits polite speech and writing. It also softly opens a request or question: すみませんが, ...

How it attaches
Polite clause
Plain clause
Opening a request

  1. This restaurant is cheap, but the food isn't good.

  2. Japanese is difficult, but it's interesting.

  3. Excuse me, but where is the station?

Often confused with

が and けど both join clauses with "but". が is more formal; けど is spoken and casual. To start a new sentence with "but", use でも or しかし.

It's expensive, but I want to buy it.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

but; although

Joins two clauses with "but". けど is casual speech; けれども is more careful, and けれど sits between them. Ending a sentence with けど leaves the rest unsaid, which softens it.

How it attaches
Plain form
Polite form
More formal

  1. I want to go, but I don't have time.

  2. This room is small, but it's close to the station.

  3. I asked the teacher, but I still didn't understand.

Often confused with

けど joins two clauses inside one sentence; でも starts a new sentence.

I want to go. But I don't have time.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

and; and then; but; however (starting a sentence)

These start a new sentence and link it to the one before. そして adds (and); それから adds the next event (and then); でも is the spoken "but"; しかし is the written or formal "but".

How it attaches
Adding
The next event
Contrast, spoken
Contrast, formal

  1. I ate breakfast. Then I went to school.

  2. This restaurant is cheap. And the food is good.

  3. Japanese is hard. But it's fun.

Often confused with

でも and しかし start a new sentence; けど and が join two clauses inside one sentence.

Japanese is hard, but it's fun.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

probably; I think; (rising) right?

Says what you think is likely, without being sure. だろう is the plain form; in speech it can sound blunt, and it is common in writing. With a rising voice, でしょう？ asks the listener to agree.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective (no だ)

  1. It will probably rain tomorrow.

  2. It's probably cold at the top of the mountain.

  3. My brother has probably reached home by now.

Often confused with

でしょう says something is likely; かもしれない says it is only possible.

It may rain in the afternoon.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(explaining, or asking for an explanation)

Adds the sense "the thing is ...". It explains a situation, gives a reason, or asks the listener to explain: どうしたんですか. のです is written or formal; んです is spoken. Nouns and な-adjectives take な before it.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective + な
Asking

  1. "What's the matter?" "I have a headache."

  2. I'm going on a trip, starting tomorrow.

  3. I'm sorry, I don't understand Japanese well.

Often confused with

A plain です or ます sentence just states a fact; んです presents it as an explanation tied to the situation. Used for every statement, んです can sound pushy.

My head hurts.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

the polite verb ending

The polite form of a verb, used with people you do not know well and in most textbook dialogues. Its forms are ます (present and future), ません (negative), ました (past) and ませんでした (negative past).

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Negative
Past
Negative past

  1. I go to bed at eleven every night.

  2. I don't drink alcohol.

  3. I met a friend yesterday.

Often confused with

ます is the polite form; the dictionary form (飲のむ) is the plain form, used with friends and inside longer sentences, before patterns such as 〜つもりです.

I go to bed at eleven every night.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

the dictionary form (plain non-past) and the three verb groups

The form a dictionary lists: 飲のむ, 食たべる, する. Verbs fall into three groups: う-verbs (godan), る-verbs (ichidan), and the two irregular verbs する and 来くる. The group decides how every other form is made.

How it attaches
う-verb (godan)
る-verb (ichidan)
Irregular

  1. I study Japanese every day.

  2. I get up at six every morning.

  3. A friend is coming tomorrow.

Often confused with

The dictionary form is plain; ます is its polite form. 帰かえる and 入はいる look like る-verbs but are う-verbs: 帰かえります, 入はいります.

I get home at seven every day.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

not (the plain negative of a verb)

The plain negative. う-verbs move the last sound to the あ row and add ない (書かく→書かかない; う becomes わ: 買かう→買かわない); る-verbs drop る (食たべない). The irregular verbs give しない and 来こない. The negative of ある is simply ない.

How it attaches
う-verb
る-verb
Irregular
Negative past

  1. I don't eat meat.

  2. I'm not going anywhere today.

  3. Nobody came yesterday.

Often confused with

Verbs take ない directly; nouns and な-adjectives take じゃない, and い-adjectives take くない.

Tomorrow is not a day off.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

the plain past of a verb

The plain past. It is made like the て form, with た for て and だ for で: 書かいて→書かいた, 読よんで→読よんだ. The irregular verbs give した and 来きた, and 行いく gives 行いった.

How it attaches
う-verb
る-verb
Irregular, and 行いく

  1. I saw a movie yesterday.

  2. I went to Kyoto with a friend last week.

  3. Have you had breakfast yet?

Often confused with

た and て are made the same way. た ends a clause in the past; て links it to what comes next.

I saw a movie and went home.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

and (then); linking actions in order

Links actions in the order they happen; the tense of the whole sentence comes at the end. The て form is also the base of many patterns: 〜てください, 〜ている, 〜てもいい.

How it attaches
う-verb (く→いて, む→んで)
う-verb (う, つ, る→って)
る-verb
Irregular, and 行いく

  1. In the morning I get up and wash my face.

  2. I walked to the station and got on a train.

  3. I went to the bookstore and bought a dictionary.

Often confused with

〜て simply lists actions in order; 〜てから stresses that the second happens only after the first is done.

Let's wash our hands first, then eat.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

い-adjectives

Adjectives ending in い. They change their own ending: くない (negative), かった (past), くなかった (negative past). They go straight before a noun: 高たかい山やま. いい is irregular: よくない, よかった.

How it attaches
Before a noun
Negative
Past
Negative past
いい

  1. Tokyo is a big city.

  2. This book isn't difficult.

  3. Yesterday's party was fun.

Often confused with

い-adjectives take くない and かった themselves. な-adjectives use じゃない and だった like nouns, and need な before a noun.

I like quiet parks.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

な-adjectives

Adjectives that take な before a noun: 静しずかな町まち. At the end of a sentence they act like nouns: 静しずかだ, 静しずかじゃない, 静しずかだった. A few end in い but are な-adjectives: きれい and 嫌きらい.

How it attaches
Before a noun
End of a sentence
Negative
Past

  1. I met a famous person.

  2. This room isn't clean.

  3. My father is very healthy.

Often confused with

きれい and 嫌きらい end in い but are な-adjectives: きれいじゃない, not きれくない.

This room isn't spacious.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

and (linking adjectives and nouns)

Links an adjective or a noun to what follows. い-adjectives change い to くて; な-adjectives and nouns take で. いい becomes よくて.

How it attaches
い-adjective
な-adjective
Noun
いい

  1. This restaurant is cheap and good.

  2. The library is quiet and spacious.

  3. My older brother is a doctor, and my older sister is a student.

Often confused with

くて and で link adjectives and nouns; a verb links with its own て form.

In the morning I drink coffee and go to work.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

there is; to have (existence)

ある is for things and plants; いる is for people and animals. The place takes に: 部屋へやに猫ねこがいます. ある also means "to have": 時間じかんがある.

How it attaches
Thing
Person, animal
Place first
Polite

  1. There is a bank near the station.

  2. There is a dog in the yard.

  3. I don't have time today.

Often confused with

Where a thing or a person is takes に; where an event takes place takes で: 公園こうえんでお祭まつりがあります.

There's a party at school on Saturday.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

want (a thing)

Says what the speaker wants; in a question, what the listener wants. The thing wanted takes が. ほしい is an い-adjective. It is not used for what a third person wants.

How it attaches
Noun
Polite
Negative

  1. I want a new bicycle.

  2. What do you want for your birthday?

  3. I don't want anything right now.

Often confused with

ほしい is for things (a noun + が); 〜たい is for actions (a verb): 車くるまがほしい, but 車くるまを買かいたい.

I want to buy a new car.

N5 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N5, another at N4.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

want to (do)

Attaches to the ます stem to say what the speaker wants to do; in a question, what the listener wants to do. It changes like an い-adjective: たくない, たかった. The object can take が or を.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Negative
Past

  1. I want to work in Japan.

  2. I'm tired, so I don't want to go anywhere today.

  3. When I was a child, I wanted to become a teacher.

Often confused with

〜たい goes on a verb (wanting to do something); ほしい goes on a noun (wanting a thing).

I want some water.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

let's (do)

Proposes doing something together, or agrees to a suggestion. It assumes the listener will join; to invite more politely, use 〜ませんか.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)

  1. Let's have lunch together.

  2. Let's take a short break.

  3. "Would you like to see a movie tomorrow?" "Yes, let's."

Often confused with

ましょう proposes; ませんか asks politely whether the listener wants to, leaving room to say no. Invite with ませんか, and accept with ましょう.

Would you like to go to the sea on Saturday?

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

shall I ...?; shall we ...?

Offers to do something for the listener (shall I?), or proposes doing something together (shall we?).

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)

  1. Shall I carry your bags?

  2. Shall I open the window?

  3. It's late, so shall we head home?

Often confused with

ましょうか asks; ましょう proposes outright or agrees. An offer of help takes the question form: 手伝てつだいましょうか.

Well then, let's begin.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

won't you ...?; would you like to ...? (an invitation)

Politely invites the listener. Asking in the negative leaves room to say no, so it sounds more considerate than 〜ましょう. A soft refusal is ちょっと…, with the reason left unsaid.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)

  1. Would you like to go shopping together on Sunday?

  2. Would you like to have tea at a place nearby?

  3. "Would you like to see a movie tomorrow?" "Sorry, tomorrow's a bit…"

Often confused with

ませんか asks whether the listener wants to; ましょう proposes it outright, and is the usual way to accept an invitation.

Sure, let's go.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

how is ...?; how about ...?

Asks for an opinion (how is it?) or makes a suggestion (how about ...?). いかがですか is the more polite form.

How it attaches
Asking an opinion
Suggesting
More polite

  1. How is your new job?

  2. "When shall we meet?" "How about Friday?"

  3. Would you like some coffee?

Often confused with

〜はどうですか offers a thing or a time; 〜ませんか invites the listener to do something.

Would you like to go together?

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

please (do)

A polite request or instruction, attached to the て form. Between friends, the て form alone works as a request: ちょっと待まって.

How it attaches
Verb (て form)

  1. Please wait a moment.

  2. Please write your name here.

  3. Please speak a little more slowly.

Often confused with

〜てください asks someone to do something; noun + をください asks them to give you something.

Three apples, please.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

please don't (do)

A polite request not to do something, attached to the ない form. It is common on signs and in instructions.

How it attaches
Verb (ない form)

  1. Please don't take photos here.

  2. Please don't go home yet.

  3. Please don't talk loudly in the library.

Often confused with

ないでください asks politely; てはいけない states a rule and sounds strict.

You must not take photos here.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

please give me ...

Asks for a thing: in a shop, at a restaurant, at a counter. A number or amount goes after を, right before ください.

How it attaches
Noun
With a number

  1. One coffee, please.

  2. Excuse me, could I have some water?

  3. Five of these stamps, please.

Often confused with

Noun + をください asks for a thing; verb + てください asks for an action.

Please write your name.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

may; it is OK to (permission)

Gives permission, or asks for it as a question: 〜てもいいですか. A polite yes is はい、どうぞ; the usual gentle no is すみません、ちょっと… ("sorry, that's a bit…").

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
い-adjective (くて)
な-adjective, noun (で)

  1. May I take photos here?

  2. Can I borrow this book?

  3. You can hand in the homework tomorrow.

Often confused with

〜てもいい gives permission; 〜てはいけない takes it away. 〜てはいけません states a rule; as a reply to 〜てもいいですか it sounds blunt.

You must not take photos here.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

must not; may not

Forbids an action, as a rule or a strong warning. In speech it often shortens to 〜ちゃいけない, or 〜じゃいけない where the て form ends in で.

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
Polite
Casual

  1. You must not smoke in the classroom.

  2. You must not drink this water.

  3. You mustn't go out alone at night.

Often confused with

〜てはいけない means you must not do it; 〜なくてはいけない means you must do it. In form, the difference is only なく.

You have to take the medicine every day.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

must; have to

Literally "if (you) don't, it won't do". いけない is common in speech; ならない sounds more formal or general. Casual short forms are 〜なくちゃ, 〜なきゃ and 〜ないと.

How it attaches
Verb (ない form → なくては)
More formal
Casual
Casual

  1. I have to get up early tomorrow.

  2. You must take the medicine every day.

  3. It's already nine. I have to go.

Often confused with

なくてはいけない says something is required; なくてもいい says it is not required.

You don't have to come tomorrow.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

don't have to; need not

Says something is not necessary. It is made from the ない form: ない becomes なくて, plus もいい. Politely: 〜なくてもいいです.

How it attaches
Verb (ない form)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective

  1. You don't have to hand in the homework today.

  2. You don't have to hurry. There's still time.

  3. Is it all right if I keep my shoes on?

Often confused with

なくてもいい removes an obligation; なくてはいけない imposes one. 〜なくてはいけませんか is often answered いいえ、〜なくてもいいです.

You have to take off your shoes.

N5 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N5, another at N4.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

is ...ing; (a state that results from a change); (a habit or job)

Shows an action in progress (食たべている), a state that results from a change (結婚けっこんしている: is married), or a habit or job. In speech it often shortens to 〜てる.

How it attaches
Action in progress
Result of a change
Habit, job
Polite

  1. My younger brother is reading a book in his room now.

  2. My older sister is married.

  3. My father works at a bank.

Often confused with

ている with an intransitive verb describes a state (窓まどが開あいている); てある with a transitive verb describes a state someone made on purpose (窓まどが開あけてある).

The window has been left open.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

after (doing); once (something is done)

Says that one action happens after another is finished, and stresses the order: first A, then B. With a length of time, it also means "since": 日本にほんに来きてから三年さんねん.

How it attaches
Verb (て form)

  1. I'll watch TV after I do my homework.

  2. I take a shower and then go to bed.

  3. It has been three years since I came to Japan.

Often confused with

てから stresses the order of two actions; 〜た後あとで simply places an event later in time, and goes with nouns too: 授業じゅぎょうの後あとで.

After class I'm going to the library.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

before

Says one thing happens before another. A verb before 前まえに is always in the dictionary form, even when the sentence is past. A noun takes の: ご飯はんの前まえに. After a length of time it means "ago".

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Noun + の
Length of time ("ago")

  1. I brush my teeth before going to bed.

  2. Let's wash our hands before we eat.

  3. I came to Japan three years ago.

Often confused with

前まえに takes the dictionary form and means "before"; てから takes the て form and means "after".

I brush my teeth, then go to bed.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

have (ever) done; have the experience of

Talks about experience: something you have done at least once. The verb is in the た form. The negative 〜たことがない means "have never".

How it attaches
Verb (た form)
Negative
Polite

  1. I have climbed Mt. Fuji.

  2. Have you ever eaten natto?

  3. I've never been on a plane.

Often confused with

With the た form it means "have done before"; with the dictionary form, 〜ることがある means "sometimes do".

I sometimes go to the office on Sundays too.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

do things like A and B

Gives a few examples of actions and implies there are others. Each verb takes the た form plus り, and the list ends with する. It can also show things that alternate: 暑あつかったり寒さむかったり.

How it attaches
Verb (た form) + り
い-adjective

  1. On my days off I read books, watch movies and so on.

  2. Yesterday I went shopping, talked with friends and things like that.

  3. In spring it is warm some days and cold others.

Often confused with

たり〜たり picks a few examples out of many; the て form lists actions in their actual order.

In the morning I got up, washed my face and had breakfast.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

had better; should (not)

Gives advice. The positive usually takes the た form; the negative takes the ない form. It can sound strong, so it is often softened with よ or と思おもいます.

How it attaches
Verb (た form)
Verb (ない form)
Polite

  1. You have a cold. You should go to bed early.

  2. You shouldn't walk alone at night.

  3. You should eat vegetables every day.

Often confused with

たほうがいい gives firm advice; 〜たらどうですか suggests an option more lightly.

Why don't you ask the teacher?

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

B is more ... than A

Compares two things: AよりBのほうが高たかい means B is more expensive than A. The question is AとBと、どちらが〜ですか, answered with Bのほうが〜. Either half can be used alone.

How it attaches
Noun
Verb
Asking

  1. The train is faster than the bus.

  2. "Which do you like better, summer or winter?" "I like winter better."

  3. Tokyo is bigger than Osaka.

Often confused with

より〜ほうが compares two things; の中なかで〜が一番いちばん picks the top one out of three or more.

Of all fruits, I like apples best.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

of (all) ..., ... is the most

Picks the top item out of a group of three or more. The question uses a question word: 何なにが, どこが, 誰だれが, いつが一番いちばん〜ですか.

How it attaches
Group + の中なかで
Item + が一番いちばん

  1. My father is the tallest in my family.

  2. Which Japanese dish do you like best?

  3. August is the hottest month of the year.

Often confused with

For two things, use より〜のほうが; の中なかで〜が一番いちばん is for three or more.

My mother is taller than my father.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

too (much); over-

Says something goes past the right amount, usually with a bad result. It attaches to a verb's ます stem, or to an adjective with its い or な dropped. いい becomes よすぎる. すぎる itself changes like a る-verb.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
い-adjective (drop い)
な-adjective

  1. I drank too much yesterday.

  2. These shoes are too big.

  3. This question is too difficult; I don't understand it.

Often confused with

とても only says "very" and is neutral; すぎる says "too much" and implies a problem.

These shoes are very big.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

intend to; plan to

States a plan or intention the speaker has already made. The verb is in the dictionary form; 〜ないつもりだ means "intend not to".

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Verb (ない form)
Polite

  1. I plan to go back to my country during summer vacation.

  2. I intend not to smoke this year.

  3. I plan to study Japanese at university next year.

Often confused with

つもりだ is a settled plan; 〜ようと思おもう is a decision you are considering or have just made.

I'm thinking of resting at home on Sunday.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

go (somewhere) to do

Gives the purpose of going or coming. The verb's ます stem, or a noun of action, takes に: 買かいに行いく, 買かい物ものに行いく. 来くる and 帰かえる work the same way.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Action noun
With 来くる, 帰かえる

  1. I'm going to the library to borrow books.

  2. A friend is coming over on Sunday.

  3. I'm going home to eat lunch.

Often confused with

〜に行いく gives the purpose of going; 〜て行いく says how you go, or what you do before going.

I'll walk to the station.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

decide on; choose (something)

Says what you choose, as when ordering: コーヒーにします. It also fixes a choice among options, such as a day or a place.

How it attaches
Noun
Polite

  1. I'll have the curry.

  2. We decided on Kyoto for the trip.

  3. Let's have the party on Saturday.

Often confused with

にする is a choice someone makes; になる is a change or result that happens.

It's already summer.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

become; get (a change of state)

Describes a change. い-adjectives change い to く (寒さむくなる); な-adjectives and nouns take に (元気げんきになる, 医者いしゃになる).

How it attaches
い-adjective
な-adjective
Noun

  1. Now that it's October, it has gotten cold.

  2. I took the medicine and got better.

  3. My older brother became a doctor last year.

Often confused with

なる is a change that happens; する is a change someone makes: 部屋へやが暖あたたかくなる, but 部屋へやを暖あたたかくする.

I tidied up the room.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

already; (with a negative) not anymore; (before an amount) more

With a positive verb it means "already": もう食たべました. With a negative it means "no longer": もう行いきません. Before an amount it means "more, another": もう一度いちど.

How it attaches
Positive
Negative
Before an amount

  1. Have you had lunch already?

  2. I'm not going to that shop anymore.

  3. Please say it once more.

Often confused with

もう says a change has happened (already, no longer); まだ says it has not happened yet (still, not yet).

"Have you eaten already?" "No, not yet."

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

still; not yet

With a positive it means "still": まだ寝ねています. With 〜ていない it means "not yet": まだ食たべていない. "Not yet" takes ていない, not the plain past negative.

How it attaches
Still
Not yet
Short answer

  1. My father is still at the office.

  2. The homework isn't finished yet.

  3. I haven't seen that movie yet.

Often confused with

まだ〜ていない means "not yet" (it may still happen); もう〜ない means "no longer".

I don't smoke anymore.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

only; just

Limits to what is named and nothing more. It follows nouns, numbers and plain forms, and other particles can follow it: 日本にほんだけで.

How it attaches
Noun
Number
Verb (plain)

  1. In the morning I only drink coffee.

  2. I have just one question.

  3. I'm not buying. I'm just looking.

Often confused with

だけ is neutral; しか always takes a negative and stresses "no more than", often with a sense of too little.

I only have a thousand yen in my wallet.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

about; approximately (an amount)

Gives a rough amount, length of time or number. ぐらい and くらい mean the same here. For a point in time, ごろ is the usual choice: 三時さんじごろ.

How it attaches
Amount
Length of time
Number of people or things

  1. It takes about ten minutes to the station.

  2. About twenty people came to the party.

  3. I study Japanese for about an hour every day.

Often confused with

ぐらい is "about" for an amount or a length of time; ごろ is "around" for a point in time.

I go to bed around eleven every night.

N5 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N5, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

when; at the time (that)

Says when something happens. The verb form before とき matters: 行いくとき is before or on the way; 行いったとき is after arriving. い-adjectives go straight before it, な-adjectives take な, and nouns take の.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Verb (た form)
い-adjective
な-adjective + な
Noun + の

  1. When I was going to Japan, I bought a camera at the airport.

  2. When I went to Japan, I bought a camera in Kyoto.

  3. When I was a child, I often swam in this river.

Often confused with

とき marks the time something happens; たら is "if" or "once": what follows happens after a condition is met.

Please call me once you get to the station.

N5 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N5, another at N4.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

how to (do); the way of (doing)

Turns a verb into a noun meaning "the way of doing it". It attaches to the ます stem, and the object takes の instead of を: 漢字かんじの書かき方かた.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Object + の
する verbs

  1. Please tell me how to read this kanji.

  2. I don't know how to get to the station.

  3. You're good at using chopsticks.

Often confused with

In 〜方かた the kanji is read かた and follows a ます stem ("the way of"). In comparisons and advice the same kanji is read ほう and is usually written in kana: 電車でんしゃのほうが速はやい.

The train is faster.

N5 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N5, another at N4.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

like (doing); be good at (doing)

の turns a verb phrase into a noun, so it can come before が好すき, が上手じょうず, が下手へた and similar words. The verb is in the plain form.

How it attaches
Like
Good at
Bad at

  1. I like cooking.

  2. My older sister is good at singing.

  3. I'm bad at speaking in front of people.

Often confused with

Before 好すき or 上手じょうず the usual choice is の; こと goes with できる and in set phrases such as 趣味しゅみは〜ことです.

My hobby is taking photos.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

why

All three ask for a reason. どうして is neutral and common; なぜ is more formal or written; なんで is casual. In conversation the question usually ends in 〜んですか (〜の？ when casual), and the answer often in 〜からです.

How it attaches
Neutral
Formal, written
Casual

  1. "Why were you absent yesterday?" "Because I had a headache."

  2. Why didn't you come?

  3. Why are you studying Japanese?

Often confused with

どうして asks why; どうやって asks how, by what means.

How do you get to the station?

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

what, who, where, when, how

A question word goes where the answer would go. As the subject it takes が, never は: 誰だれが来きましたか. 何なに is read なん before です, の and counters: 何なんですか, 何時なんじ.

How it attaches
Thing
Person
Place
Time
Means

  1. What are you doing on Sunday?

  2. Who did you go with?

  3. When is your birthday?

Often confused with

A bare question word asks; with か it means "some-" (何なにか, something); with も and a negative it means "no-" (何なにも, nothing).

I didn't eat anything yesterday.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

what kind of

Asks about the kind or nature of something. It always comes before a noun. To choose among things you can see or have named, use どの instead.

How it attaches
Before a noun

  1. What kind of person is the new teacher?

  2. What kind of music do you like?

  3. What kind of city is Kyoto?

Often confused with

どんな asks what kind; どの asks which one, out of things you can see or have named.

Which bag is yours?

N5 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N5, another at N4.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

this, that, that over there, which (the ko-so-a-do words)

こ- is near the speaker, そ- near the listener, あ- away from both, and ど- asks. これ stands alone as a noun; この needs a noun after it; ここ is a place. The same pattern runs through それ・その・そこ and あれ・あの・あそこ.

How it attaches
Thing, alone
Before a noun
Place
Asking

  1. This is my dictionary.

  2. Whose umbrella is that?

  3. The restroom is over there.

Often confused with

この, その, あの and どの point at one thing; こんな, そんな, あんな and どんな describe a kind: こんな本ほん is "a book like this".

What kind of books do you read?

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

something, someone, somewhere; (with a negative) nothing, no one, nowhere

A question word plus か means "some-": 何なにか, 誰だれか, どこか. A question word plus も and a negative means "no-": 何なにも, 誰だれも. Particles such as に and へ stay in front of も: どこにも.

How it attaches
Some-
No- (with a negative)
With a particle

  1. Would you like something to drink?

  2. There's no one in the room.

  3. I didn't go anywhere on Sunday.

Often confused with

Without か or も, the word asks a question: 誰だれが来きましたか (who came?). With か it means "someone": 誰だれか来きましたか (did someone come?).

Who came?

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(the polite prefixes)

Make a noun polite or refined. お mostly goes on native Japanese words (お金かね, お水みず); ご goes on words of Chinese origin (ご家族かぞく). Some everyday words of Chinese origin take お instead: お茶ちゃ, お電話でんわ. A few words almost always carry one: ご飯はん, お茶ちゃ.

How it attaches
Native word
Chinese-origin word
Exceptions (Chinese origin, with お)

  1. Some water, please.

  2. How many people are in your family?

  3. What is your name?

Often confused with

お before a noun is simply polite; お + ます stem + になる is an honorific verb form.

The teacher has already gone home.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

say (that); quoting

Quotes what someone said. A direct quote goes in 「」 before と; an indirect one is in the plain form. To pass on a message, use 〜と言いっていました.

How it attaches
Direct quote
Indirect (plain form)
Passing on a message

  1. The teacher said, "Good morning."

  2. My friend said they won't come tomorrow.

  3. In Japan, people say "itadakimasu" before eating.

Often confused with

と言いう reports what someone said; と思おもう gives what you think.

I think it will rain tomorrow.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

give (to someone else)

Giving from the speaker, or from someone on the speaker's side, to someone else. The receiver takes に. It is not used when someone gives to the speaker; that is くれる.

How it attaches
Receiver + に
Polite

  1. I gave my mother flowers.

  2. I gave my younger brother my old bicycle.

  3. What will you give your friend for their birthday?

Often confused with

あげる is giving away from you; くれる is someone giving to you or your family. 友ともだちが私わたしにあげました is a mistake; say くれました.

A friend gave me a book.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

give (to me, or to my side)

Someone gives something to the speaker, or to the speaker's family or group. The giver is the subject, and the receiver, if said, takes に.

How it attaches
Giver + が
Polite

  1. My father gave me a watch.

  2. A friend gave my younger sister some sweets.

  3. This is a bag my older sister gave me.

Often confused with

With くれる the giver is the subject: 兄あにがくれた. With もらう the receiver is the subject: 兄あににもらった. Both can describe the same gift.

I got a watch from my older brother.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

receive; get (from someone)

The receiver is the subject. The giver takes に or から: 先生せんせいにもらう. When the giver is a company, a school or another organization, から is used.

How it attaches
Giver + に
Giver + から

  1. I got a sweater from my mother for my birthday.

  2. I got a letter from the company.

  3. Who did you get that book from?

Often confused with

もらう takes the receiver as subject (私わたしは兄あににもらった); くれる takes the giver as subject, with the gift coming to you (兄あにが私わたしにくれた).

My mother gave me a sweater.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

noun-modifying clauses (the book I bought)

A whole clause can go in front of a noun to describe it. The clause is in the plain form, with nothing between it and the noun: 昨日きのう買かった本ほん. Inside the clause, the subject can take の instead of が: 母ははの作つくった料理りょうり.

How it attaches
Verb (plain) + noun
ている + noun
Subject with の

  1. This is the book I bought yesterday.

  2. Who is the person reading a newspaper over there?

  3. The food my mother makes is good.

Often confused with

の joins two nouns, but a verb or an い-adjective goes straight before the noun: 買かった本ほん, not 買かったの本ほん.

This is my father's book.

N5 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N5).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

N4111 notes

if (the conditional form)

States a condition and what follows from it. う-verbs move the last sound to the え row and add ば (行いけば); る-verbs take れば (食たべれば); い-adjectives take ければ (安やすければ); nouns and な-adjectives take なら or であれば. It often gives a general rule or a hope.

How it attaches
う-verb
る-verb
い-adjective
Negative
Noun, な-adjective
Noun, な-adjective, formal

  1. If you press this button, the door opens.

  2. If it's cheap, I'll buy it.

  3. If you don't hurry, you won't make the train.

Often confused with

ば focuses on the condition and suits general rules and hopes. When A is an action, what follows ば cannot be a request or an intention; たら has no such limit: 着ついたら電話でんわしてください, not 着つけば電話でんわしてください.

Please call me when you get to the station.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

if; when; once; (with a past result) when ... I found

The broadest "if": the た form plus ら. It also means "once this happens, then ..." for something certain to happen, and with a past result it means "when I did A, B happened (unexpectedly)". もし adds emphasis to the "if".

How it attaches
Verb (た form)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective
Negative

  1. If it rains, the game is called off.

  2. Once work is over, let's go for a drink.

  3. When I got home, I found my mother there.

Often confused with

と says B always or automatically follows A, and B cannot be a request, an invitation or a wish. たら has no such limits.

When spring comes, the cherry trees bloom.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

if (it is the case that); if you're talking about

Takes up something the listener has said or the situation suggests, and gives advice or an opinion about it: "If it's X you want, then ...". It follows plain forms and nouns directly.

How it attaches
Noun
Verb (plain)
い-adjective

  1. If you're going to Kyoto, autumn is a good time.

  2. "I'd like a dictionary." "If it's a dictionary you want, that shop is cheap."

  3. If you're cold, shall I close the window?

Often confused with

なら reacts to something already mentioned, and what follows can come first in time (行いくなら、切符きっぷを買かっておく). With たら, A always happens before B.

I'll call you when I arrive in Kyoto.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

when(ever); if (B follows A naturally or always)

Says that B always or automatically follows A: laws of nature, machines, habits, directions. It follows the plain non-past form: a verb's dictionary or ない form, an い-adjective, or a noun or な-adjective with だ. B cannot be a request, an invitation, a wish or the speaker's own plan.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Verb (ない form)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective + だ

  1. When you press this button, tea comes out.

  2. If you turn right, you'll see the station.

  3. When spring comes, the cherry trees bloom.

Often confused with

と is for things that follow automatically; for requests, invitations and one-time plans use たら: 着ついたら教おしえてください.

Let me know when you arrive.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

even if; even though

Says that the result does not change whatever the condition. Verbs take the て form plus も; い-adjectives take くても; nouns and な-adjectives take でも. With a question word it means "no matter (what, who, how)".

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective
With a question word

  1. No matter how many times I read it, I don't understand.

  2. Even if it's expensive, I want to buy this dictionary.

  3. The game will go ahead even if it rains.

Often confused with

たら says what follows if a condition is met; ても says the result is the same even if it is met.

If it rains, there will be no game.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

although; even though (with surprise or frustration)

Joins two facts where the second is not what you would expect, and adds the speaker's surprise, regret or complaint. Nouns and な-adjectives take な before のに.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective + な

  1. Even though I studied a lot, I failed the exam.

  2. Even though it's Sunday, I have to go to work.

  3. He promised, yet he didn't come.

Often confused with

けど simply contrasts two facts; のに adds surprise or complaint. のに cannot end in a request, an invitation or an intention.

It's expensive, but I'm thinking of buying this bag.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

for (doing); in (doing) (a use, a cost or the time something takes)

Says what something is used for, or what it takes to do something, before words such as 使つかう, 便利べんり, いい, かかる and 必要ひつよう. It follows the dictionary form.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
With 便利べんり, いい
With time and money

  1. These scissors are used for cutting paper.

  2. This place is near the station and convenient for getting to school.

  3. It took three hours to make this dish.

Often confused with

のに goes with a short list of words (use, convenience, cost, time); ために states any purpose: 日本にほんで働はたらくために勉強べんきょうする.

I'm studying Japanese in order to work in Japan.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

while (doing two things at once)

One person does two actions at the same time. It attaches to the ます stem, and the main action comes last. Both actions belong to the same subject.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)

  1. I study while listening to music.

  2. Talking on the phone while walking is dangerous.

  3. My father eats breakfast while reading the newspaper.

Often confused with

ながら is one person doing two things at once; 〜間あいだに is something that happens within a period, often by someone else.

My mother came home while I was asleep.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

and (what's more); and besides (listing reasons)

Lists facts or reasons, implying there are more. It follows plain forms and often gives reasons for a conclusion: 安やすいし、おいしいし、よく行いきます. A も inside the clause adds "among other things": 雨あめも降ふっているし.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective + だ

  1. This restaurant is cheap, and the food is good, so I come here often.

  2. It's raining, among other things, so I'm not going out today.

  3. The room is spacious, and it's close to the station too.

Often confused with

から gives one reason as the cause; し lists one or more reasons and implies there are others.

It's raining, so I'm not going out.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

not ... and (so); because (something does not happen)

The て form of ない. It links a negative to what follows, usually as a cause of a feeling or a state: 会あえなくて寂さびしい. After い-adjectives it is くなくて, and after nouns じゃなくて.

How it attaches
Verb (ない form → なくて)
い-adjective
Noun

  1. I can't find my wallet, and I don't know what to do.

  2. My friend didn't come, and I was lonely.

  3. I'm glad it didn't rain today.

Often confused with

ないで means "without doing" or "instead of doing"; なくて gives a cause, usually of a feeling. 朝あさごはんを食たべないで来きた (came without eating), but 食たべられなくて困こまった.

I came to school without eating breakfast.

N4 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N4).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

without (doing); instead of (doing)

Attaches to the ない form. It says an action is done without another one that would be expected, or one action is done instead of another.

How it attaches
Verb (ない form)

  1. Yesterday I studied without sleeping.

  2. I went out without an umbrella and got caught in the rain.

  3. Instead of taking the bus, I walked to the station.

Often confused with

ないで describes how an action is done (without, instead of); なくて gives a cause, usually of a feeling or a state.

I can't finish my homework, and I'm in trouble.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N5, another at N4.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

... or something; even; (with a question word) any-

After a noun it softens a suggestion: お茶ちゃでも (tea or something). It can mean "even": 子こどもでも. With a question word it means "any-": 誰だれでも (anyone), いつでも (any time).

How it attaches
Soft suggestion
Even
Question word

  1. You must be tired. How about a coffee or something?

  2. Even a child can do this problem.

  3. If you have questions, ask me any time.

Often confused with

At the start of a sentence, でも means "but"; after a noun, it means "or something" or "even".

I want to go. But I don't have time.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

as many as; as much as (a large amount, with surprise)

After a number or amount, も stresses that it is a lot. With a negative and "one", it means "not even one": 一人ひとりも来こなかった.

How it attaches
Number
Not even one

  1. I waited at the station for a whole hour.

  2. This bag cost as much as a hundred thousand yen.

  3. Not a single person came to the party.

Often confused with

Number + も stresses that it is a lot; number + しか〜ない stresses that it is only a little.

I only waited five minutes at the station.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(do) completely; (do) by mistake, with regret

Says an action is completely finished, or that something happened that the speaker regrets or did not intend. In speech, てしまう shortens to ちゃう, and でしまう to じゃう.

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
Past
Casual

  1. I've already finished all my homework.

  2. I left my umbrella on the train.

  3. Oops, I ate my friend's cake.

Often confused with

てしまう looks back at something finished, often with regret; ておく does something now so that it is ready later.

I'll book a hotel before the trip.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

do in advance; do and leave it that way

Does something now in preparation for later, or leaves something as it is on purpose. In speech it shortens to 〜とく (買かっとく).

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
Polite
Casual

  1. A friend is coming, so I bought drinks in advance.

  2. After cooking, please leave the window open.

  3. I'll look up the new words before class.

Often confused with

ておく is the action of preparing; てある describes the prepared state afterwards: 窓まどを開あけておいた, so 窓まどが開あけてある.

The drinks have already been bought.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

try (doing) (to see what it is like)

Says you do something to find out what it is like or whether it works. It attaches to the て form and changes like a る-verb; 〜てみたい means "would like to try".

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
Past
Wish

  1. May I try this on?

  2. I tried natto for the first time.

  3. Someday I'd like to go to Hokkaido.

Often confused with

てみる means you actually do something to see how it goes; ようとする is an attempt that may not succeed, or an action about to happen.

I tried to get up, but I couldn't.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

has been done (and stays that way)

Describes a state that someone created on purpose, with a transitive verb. The object becomes the subject and takes が: 窓まどが開あけてある (someone opened it, and it is open). The person who did it is not named.

How it attaches
Transitive verb (て form)
Polite

  1. A name is written on the blackboard.

  2. Flowers have been placed on the desk.

  3. The food for the party is already made.

Often confused with

てある (transitive verb) implies someone did it on purpose; ている with an intransitive verb just describes the state: 窓まどが開あいている.

The window is open.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N5, another at N4.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

go on (doing); (do and) go; change from now on

Has two uses. In space: do something and then go, or go in some manner (持もっていく, 歩あるいていく). In time: a change or action that continues from now into the future (増ふえていく).

How it attaches
Moving away
Change from now on
Polite

  1. It looks like rain, so I'll take an umbrella.

  2. It will probably keep getting colder from now on.

  3. I want to keep on studying Japanese.

Often confused with

ていく points away from the speaker, or from now into the future; てくる points toward the speaker, or from the past up to now.

It has been getting colder lately.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(do and) come back; come (doing); begin to; have been (changing) up to now

Has two uses. In space: go, do something and come back (買かってくる), or come toward the speaker. In time: a change that has developed up to now (寒さむくなってきた), or something that starts to happen (雨あめが降ふってきた).

How it attaches
Do and come back
Change up to now
Starting

  1. I'll just go and get a drink at the convenience store.

  2. The number of foreigners living in Japan has been growing.

  3. It suddenly started to rain.

Often confused with

てくる looks from the past up to now, or toward the speaker; ていく looks from now on, or away from the speaker.

I think it will keep growing from now on.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

do (something) for someone (as a favor)

The speaker, or someone on the speaker's side, does a favor for someone else. Said directly to the person helped, it can sound condescending, so 〜ましょうか is safer for offers. The casual form toward someone younger or an animal is 〜てやる.

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
Polite
Casual, to someone younger

  1. I read a book to my younger sister.

  2. My friend was in trouble, so I lent them some money.

  3. I drew a map for someone who didn't know the way.

Often confused with

てあげる is a favor from you (or your side) to someone else; てくれる is a favor someone does for you.

My friend lent me some money.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(someone) does (something) for me or my side

Someone does a favor for the speaker, or for the speaker's family or group, and the speaker is grateful. The giver of the favor is the subject. Thanks are often 〜てくれてありがとう.

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
Past
Thanks

  1. My older brother drove me to the station.

  2. My mother made me a cake for my birthday.

  3. Thank you for helping me.

Often confused with

With てくれる the person doing the favor is the subject (兄あにが送おくってくれた); with てもらう the receiver is the subject, and it can mean you asked for it (兄あにに送おくってもらった).

I had my older brother drive me to the station.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

have (someone) do (something); get (someone) to do

The speaker receives a favor: someone does something for them, often because they asked. The receiver is the subject, and the person who does it takes に.

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
Past

  1. I had my teacher correct my essay.

  2. I had a friend take my picture.

  3. I got the shop clerk to show me how to use it.

Often confused with

てもらう takes the receiver's view and suggests you asked; てくれる takes the giver as subject and stresses their kindness.

My teacher corrected my essay for me.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

could you please ...? (a polite request)

A very polite request: "could I receive the favor of you doing ...?". Less formal versions, in order: 〜てもらえませんか, 〜てくれませんか, and between friends 〜てくれない？

How it attaches
Most polite
Polite
Polite, plainer
Casual

  1. Excuse me, could you please explain it once more?

  2. Could you carry this bag for me?

  3. Can you give me a hand?

Often confused with

てください is a polite instruction, close to a command; 〜ていただけませんか asks, and leaves the listener room to say no.

Please write your name here.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

want (someone) to do

Says what the speaker wants someone else to do. The person takes に: 友ともだちに来きてほしい. The negative is 〜ないでほしい (want someone not to). Said directly to someone senior, it can sound demanding.

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
Negative
Polite

  1. I want my mother to stay healthy for many years to come.

  2. I don't want you to tell anyone about this.

  3. I want my children to play outside.

Often confused with

〜たい is what you yourself want to do; 〜てほしい is what you want someone else to do.

I want to play outside.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

I'm glad (that I did); it's good that

Expresses relief or gladness about something that happened. With the ない form, 〜なくてよかった means "I'm glad (it) didn't".

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
Negative
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective

  1. I'm glad I entered this school.

  2. I'm glad it didn't rain.

  3. Good thing I left home early. The roads were crowded.

Often confused with

てよかった is glad about what did happen; ばよかった regrets what did not happen.

I should have left home earlier.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

sorry for (doing)

Apologizes for something the speaker did, with the て form giving the reason. More formal: 〜て申もうし訳わけありません. With the ない form: 〜なくてすみません.

How it attaches
Verb (て form)
Negative
More formal

  1. Sorry I'm late.

  2. Sorry for the late reply.

  3. I'm sorry I couldn't come yesterday.

Often confused with

てすみません apologizes for what you did; てくれてありがとう thanks someone for what they did for you. Japanese often uses すみません for thanks too, when someone went to some trouble.

Thanks for waiting for me.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

why don't you ...?; how about (doing) ...?

Suggests something to the listener, lightly. More polite: 〜たらいかがですか. Casual: 〜たら？ alone. It is advice for the listener, not an invitation to do something together.

How it attaches
Verb (た form)
More polite
Casual

  1. If you're tired, why don't you rest a little?

  2. If you don't understand, why not ask the teacher?

  3. Why not get it checked at the hospital?

Often confused with

たらどう suggests lightly and leaves the choice to the listener; たほうがいい gives firmer advice.

You should go to the hospital.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

what should I ...?; how should I ...? (asking for advice)

Asks for advice or instructions, usually with a question word: どうしたらいいですか (what should I do?). 〜ばいいですか means the same.

How it attaches
Verb (た form) + question word
Same meaning with ば

  1. I want to go to the station. How should I go?

  2. I've lost my wallet. What should I do?

  3. What time should I come?

Often confused with

たらいいですか asks for advice; たらどうですか gives it.

Why don't you go to the police box?

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

I should have; I wish I had

Regrets something that did not happen: "if (I) had done it, it would have been good". The negative 〜なければよかった regrets something that did happen. のに at the end adds stronger regret.

How it attaches
Verb (ば form)
Negative
Stronger

  1. I should have studied more.

  2. I wish I hadn't said that.

  3. You should have come too.

Often confused with

ばよかった regrets what did not happen; てよかった is glad about what did.

I'm glad you came.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

have just (done)

Says that something happened only a short time ago, as the speaker feels it. The time can be minutes or months: 先月せんげつ結婚けっこんしたばかり.

How it attaches
Verb (た form)
Polite
Before a noun

  1. I've only just come to Japan, so my Japanese is still poor.

  2. I lost the umbrella I had just bought.

  3. I just had lunch a little while ago.

Often confused with

たところ means the action has literally just finished, a moment ago; たばかり means the speaker feels it was recent, even if it was weeks ago.

I've just this moment got home.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

about to; in the middle of; have just (done)

ところ marks a point in an action: before it starts (dictionary form), while it is going on (ている form), or just after it ends (た form). It answers "where are you with it right now?".

How it attaches
About to (dictionary form)
In the middle (ている)
Just finished (た form)

  1. I'm just about to go out.

  2. I'm in the middle of making dinner.

  3. I've just arrived at the station.

Often confused with

たところ is literally the moment after; たばかり is "recently" as the speaker feels it.

I only moved here last month.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

can; be able to

Says someone can do something, or that something is possible or allowed. It follows the dictionary form. It means the same as the potential form but sounds a little more formal.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Polite
Noun

  1. I can play the piano.

  2. At this library you can borrow books for three weeks.

  3. Because of the snow, I couldn't get to school.

Often confused with

The potential form (泳およげる) means the same and is more common in conversation; ことができる is a bit more formal and simply follows the dictionary form.

I can swim.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

sometimes (do); there are times when

With the dictionary form or the ない form, says something happens now and then. It is not about experience; that is 〜たことがある.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Verb (ない form)

  1. The trains are sometimes late.

  2. When I'm busy, I sometimes skip lunch.

  3. My father sometimes goes to work on Sundays too.

Often confused with

With the た form it is about experience ("have done before"); with the dictionary form it is about frequency ("sometimes do").

I have been late for a train once.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

decide to (do)

Says the speaker decides on an action by their own will. ことにした reports a decision just made; ことにしている describes a rule you keep for yourself.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Verb (ない form)
A personal rule

  1. I've decided to enter a Japanese university next year.

  2. It's bad for my health, so I've decided not to drink.

  3. I make a point of walking for thirty minutes every morning.

Often confused with

ことにする is your own decision; ことになる is a decision made by others or by circumstances.

It has been decided that I'll work in Osaka from next month.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

it has been decided that; it turns out that

Says something was decided not by the speaker alone but by others or by the situation. Japanese often uses it even for one's own decisions, to sound modest. ことになっている states a rule or arrangement.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Past
A rule

  1. It has been decided that I'll work for a company in Tokyo from April.

  2. It has been decided that I'll go to Osaka on business next month.

  3. Smoking is not allowed in this room.

Often confused with

ことになる is decided for you, or presented that way; ことにする is clearly your own choice.

I've decided to live on my own from April.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

let's (plain); I'll (the volitional form)

The plain form of 〜ましょう. う-verbs move the last sound to the お row and add う (行いこう); る-verbs take よう (食たべよう); する becomes しよう, 来くる becomes 来こよう. It invites friends, or states your own will to yourself.

How it attaches
う-verb
る-verb
Irregular

  1. I'm tired. Let's take a break.

  2. Let's go home together.

  3. Starting tomorrow, I'll run every day.

Often confused with

The volitional is the plain form, for friends and for thoughts to yourself; ましょう is its polite form.

Let's take a short break.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

be thinking of (doing); intend to

The volitional form plus と思おもう says what the speaker is thinking of doing. と思おもっている suggests the idea has been held for some time; と思おもう can be a fresh decision.

How it attaches
Verb (volitional)
Held for a while
Polite

  1. I'm thinking of going home for the summer holidays.

  2. I've been thinking of taking piano lessons from next year.

  3. I think I'll go to bed early tonight.

Often confused with

つもりだ is a firmer, settled plan; ようと思おもう is softer, an idea you are considering or have just reached.

I plan to go home for the summer holidays.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

be scheduled to; plan to

States something on a schedule or arranged in advance, often involving others: a trip, a meeting, a train. It sounds more fixed and more neutral than つもり, which is a personal intention.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Noun + の

  1. The plane is scheduled to arrive at three.

  2. I'm scheduled to go to Osaka on business next week.

  3. We're planning a family trip for the summer holidays.

Often confused with

予定よてい is a fixed arrangement; つもり is your own intention. A train or a plane has a 予定よてい, never a つもり.

I intend to exercise more next year.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

might; may; perhaps

Says something is possible, with about even odds or less. It follows plain forms directly, and nouns and な-adjectives without だ. Polite: かもしれません.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
な-adjective, noun (no だ)

  1. It might rain from the afternoon.

  2. He may have already gone home.

  3. You have a fever. It might be a cold.

Often confused with

かもしれない says only that something is possible; でしょう says the speaker thinks it is likely.

It will probably rain from the afternoon.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

should (be); be expected to; must (by reasoning)

States what the speaker expects to be true from some reason or knowledge, not what someone ought to do. A noun takes の: 休やすみのはずだ.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun + の
な-adjective + な

  1. He left home at nine, so he should arrive soon.

  2. I sent it yesterday, so it should arrive today.

  3. It's Sunday, so the bank should be closed.

Often confused with

はずだ is an expectation about facts; べきだ is what someone ought to do.

You should keep your promises.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

cannot be; there is no way that

States strongly that something cannot be true, based on what the speaker knows. It is stronger than "probably not".

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun + の

  1. After all that practice, there's no way we'll lose.

  2. I closed it before going out, so the window can't be open.

  3. There's no way you can't do such an easy question.

Often confused with

はずがない flatly denies a possibility; ないはずだ is a milder expectation that something is not so.

He shouldn't be here yet.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

I hear that; they say that

Passes on information you heard or read. It follows the plain form, including だ after nouns and な-adjectives. The source can come first with によると. そうだ itself has no past or negative form; the tense goes on the verb before it: 降ふったそうだ.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective + だ

  1. According to the weather forecast, it will snow tomorrow.

  2. I hear my neighbor is getting married next month.

  3. I hear that shop is very famous.

Often confused with

Hearsay そうだ follows a full plain form (降ふるそうだ: I hear it will rain); "looks like" そうだ follows a stem (降ふりそうだ: it looks like rain).

The sky is dark. It looks like rain.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

looks (like); seems; about to

Says how something looks, or what seems about to happen, from what you see. Verbs take the ます stem; adjectives drop い or な. いい becomes よさそう, and ない becomes なさそう. Before a noun it is そうな; before a verb, そうに.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
い-adjective (drop い)
な-adjective
Irregular
Before a noun, a verb

  1. This cake looks delicious.

  2. It looks like it'll rain any minute.

  3. The children are playing happily.

Often confused with

"Looks like" そうだ is a judgment from what you see, on a stem; hearsay そうだ passes on what you heard, on a full plain form.

I hear this cake is delicious.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

seems; appears; it looks as if

A guess based on what the speaker sees, hears or feels directly. It is more formal than みたいだ. Nouns take の and な-adjectives take な before it.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun + の
な-adjective + な

  1. It seems someone has come.

  2. I have a fever. I seem to have caught a cold.

  3. The light in the room is off. It seems no one is there.

Often confused with

ようだ is your own judgment from direct evidence; らしい leans on something you heard or read.

According to the forecast, it's apparently going to rain tomorrow.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

seems; looks like; like

The casual counterpart of ようだ: a guess from what you see, or a comparison (like). It follows plain forms and nouns directly; nouns and な-adjectives take no だ. Before a noun it is みたいな; before a verb, みたいに.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Noun (no だ)
Before a noun, a verb

  1. It looks like no one's in the next room.

  2. We really won? It's like a dream!

  3. My older brother was as happy as a child.

Often confused with

みたいだ is casual speech; ようだ is more formal. Grammar differs before nouns: 夢ゆめみたいだ, but 夢ゆめのようだ.

It's just like a dream.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

apparently; it seems (from what I hear)

A conclusion based on information from outside: something heard, read or reported. It follows plain forms and nouns directly; nouns and な-adjectives take no だ. After a noun it can also mean "typical of": 男おとこらしい (manly). That is a different use.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective (no だ)

  1. Apparently a new shop has opened in front of the station.

  2. Apparently my brother's friend is going to quit his job.

  3. Apparently it's going to rain tomorrow.

Often confused with

そうだ passes on what you heard almost word for word; らしい adds your own conclusion from it and is less direct.

I hear it will rain tomorrow.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

like; as; such as

Compares one thing to another, or gives an example. Nouns take の: 花はなのような. Before a noun it is ような; before a verb or an adjective, ように. まるで stresses the likeness.

How it attaches
Noun + の, before a noun
Noun + の, before a verb
Verb (plain)

  1. She is like a flower.

  2. As the teacher said, I practice every day.

  3. I want to live in a big city like Tokyo.

Often confused with

みたいな is the casual form and takes a noun with no の: 花はなみたいな人ひと.

She is like a flower.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

come to (do); reach the point where; begin to be able to

Describes a gradual change in ability or habit. With the potential form it means "become able to": 話はなせるようになった. With the ない form, 〜なくなる is the usual way to say "stop doing".

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Potential
No longer (ない → なく)

  1. Since coming to Japan, I've become able to eat natto.

  2. I practiced every day and learned to swim.

  3. Recently my child has started reading books.

Often confused with

ようになる is a change that comes about; ようにする is an effort you make.

I make a point of reading every day.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

try to; make sure to; make a point of

Describes an effort to do something, or to avoid doing it, as a habit. ようにしている is an ongoing habit. With the ない form: 〜ないようにする (try not to).

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Verb (ない form)
A habit

  1. I make a point of walking for thirty minutes every day.

  2. Please make sure you're not late for the appointment.

  3. I try not to drink coffee at night.

Often confused with

ようにする is an effort you make; ようになる is a change that happens.

I've started sleeping well at night.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

so that; in order that

States an aim that is a state or something not fully under one's control: being able to, not forgetting, not catching cold. It follows the dictionary form, the potential form or the ない form.

How it attaches
Potential
Verb (ない form)
Non-volitional verb

  1. Please speak loudly so the people at the back can hear too.

  2. I'll write a note so I don't forget.

  3. Keep warm in bed so you don't catch a cold.

Often confused with

ように is for aims that are states or outside your control (to be able to, not to forget); ために is for aims you act on directly (in order to buy, to study), with the same subject in both parts.

I'm working hard in order to buy a house.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

tell (someone) to do; ask (someone) to do

Reports an instruction or request indirectly. The person told takes に. With the ない form it means "tell someone not to". Other verbs fit the same slot: 頼たのむ, 注意ちゅういする.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Verb (ない form)

  1. The teacher told the students to hand in their homework.

  2. My mother told me to go to bed early.

  3. I told my younger brother not to smoke in his room.

Often confused with

と言いう reports words as said; ように言いう reports an instruction or request.

The teacher said, "Please hand in your homework."

N4 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N4).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

be (done); have something done to one (the passive)

The person or thing affected becomes the subject, and the doer takes に. う-verbs move the last sound to the あ row and add れる (読よまれる); る-verbs take られる; する becomes される, 来くる becomes 来こられる. The "suffering" passive shows that something happened to someone's annoyance: 雨あめに降ふられた.

How it attaches
う-verb
る-verb
Irregular
Suffering passive

  1. When I was a child, my mother often got angry at me.

  2. This song is sung all over the world.

  3. Someone stepped on my foot on the train.

Often confused with

For る-verbs the passive and the potential share one form: 見みられる can mean "be seen" or "can see". The particles tell them apart: 誰だれかに見みられた (was seen by someone), 星ほしが見みられる (can see stars).

You can see Mt. Fuji from here.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

make (someone) do; let (someone) do

The person who causes the action is the subject; the person who does it takes に (or を with a verb that has no object). う-verbs take せる after the あ row (行いかせる); る-verbs take させる; する becomes させる, 来くる becomes 来こさせる. 〜させてください asks permission to do something yourself.

How it attaches
う-verb
る-verb
Irregular
Asking permission

  1. My mother made my younger brother eat his vegetables.

  2. My father let me go traveling on my own.

  3. I have a fever, so please let me take today off.

Often confused with

The causative takes the view of the one who makes or lets; the causative-passive takes the view of the one who is made to do it.

My younger brother was made to eat his vegetables by our mother.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

be made to (do something one does not want to)

The person who is made to act is the subject, and the one who makes them takes に. It says the action was against the subject's wishes. う-verbs usually take the shorter される (行いかされる) rather than せられる; す-verbs keep せられる (話はなさせられる).

How it attaches
う-verb
る-verb
Irregular

  1. I was made to wait at the station for a whole hour.

  2. As a child, I was made to practice the piano every day.

  3. I was suddenly made to give my opinion at the meeting.

Often confused with

The passive says something was done to you; the causative-passive says you were made to do it yourself.

The teacher called my name.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

can; be able to (the potential form)

Says someone can do something, or something is possible. う-verbs move the last sound to the え row and add る (書かける); る-verbs take られる (食たべられる); する becomes できる, 来くる becomes 来こられる. The object usually takes が. In casual speech, る-verbs often drop ら: 食たべれる.

How it attaches
う-verb
る-verb
Irregular
Object + が

  1. I can speak a little Japanese.

  2. I can't eat spicy food.

  3. Can you come to the party tomorrow?

Often confused with

The potential form is the everyday way to say "can"; ことができる means the same and sounds a little more formal.

I can speak Japanese.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

can be seen; can be heard (without trying)

Things come into view or reach your ears on their own: 山やまが見みえる, 音おとが聞きこえる. The thing seen or heard takes が. For ability or opportunity, use the potential: 見みられる, 聞きける.

How it attaches
Seen
Heard

  1. You can see the sea from the window of the room.

  2. I can hear music from the next room.

  3. The letters are small, and I can't see them well.

Often confused with

見みえる and 聞きこえる are what reaches you on its own; 見みられる and 聞きける are what you are able to see or hear, given the chance.

You can watch old movies on the internet.

N4 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N4).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

intransitive and transitive verb pairs

Many verbs come in pairs. The transitive verb (他動詞たどうし) has a doer acting on an object marked with を: ドアを開あける. The intransitive verb (自動詞じどうし) describes what happens by itself, with が: ドアが開あく.

How it attaches
Intransitive (が)
Transitive (を)
Intransitive (が)
Transitive (を)

  1. The door closed in the wind.

  2. It's cold, so please close the window.

  3. The light in the room is on. It seems someone is there.

Often confused with

An intransitive verb + ている describes a state (窓まどが閉しまっている); a transitive verb + てある describes a state someone made on purpose (窓まどが閉しめてある).

The window has been closed.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

do it! (the command form); don't! (the prohibitive)

The blunt command form: う-verbs move the last sound to the え row (行いけ), る-verbs take ろ (食たべろ), する becomes しろ, 来くる becomes 来こい. The prohibitive is the dictionary form plus な (行いくな). Both sound rough; they appear in signs, sports, emergencies and quoted speech.

How it attaches
う-verb
る-verb
Irregular
Prohibitive

  1. Look out! Stop!

  2. Do not park here.

  3. My father told me, "Go to bed early."

Often confused with

The command form is rough and used among equals in a strong moment or in signs; なさい is a firm but softer instruction, from parents or teachers.

Go to bed now.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

do (it) (a firm instruction)

Attaches to the ます stem. It is how parents speak to children and teachers to pupils, and it appears in test instructions: 答こたえなさい. It is not used to equals or seniors.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Test instructions

  1. Hurry up and do your homework.

  2. Eat your vegetables too.

  3. Choose the one correct answer.

Often confused with

なさい is a firm instruction from someone with authority; てください is a polite request anyone can make.

Please choose the one correct answer.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(honorific) does; (respect for the person doing it)

Raises the person who does the action, usually a superior or a customer. お goes before the ます stem, then になる. Words of Chinese origin take ご: ご利用りようになる. Verbs with their own honorific (いらっしゃる, 召めし上あがる) use those instead.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Chinese-origin word
Polite

  1. The company president has already gone home.

  2. The teacher wrote this book.

  3. Around what time will you be back?

Often confused with

お〜になる raises the person doing the action (honorific); お〜する lowers yourself when you act for someone (humble).

Let me carry your bags.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

special honorific verbs

Some common verbs have their own honorific form, used for the actions of superiors and customers: いらっしゃる (be, go, come), 召めし上あがる (eat, drink), おっしゃる (say), ご覧らんになる (see), なさる (do), くださる (give me).

How it attaches
いる, 行いく, 来くる
食たべる, 飲のむ
言いう
する
見みる

  1. Is the professor in the office?

  2. Please help yourself.

  3. The company president said so.

Often confused with

Honorific verbs are for other people's actions; humble verbs (参まいる, いたす, 申もうす) are for your own actions toward them.

I will come tomorrow.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

please (do) (honorific request)

A very polite request, common in shops, stations and announcements. お goes before the ます stem, then ください; ご is used with words of Chinese origin: ご注意ちゅういください.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Chinese-origin word

  1. Please wait a moment.

  2. Please write your name here.

  3. Please be careful; it's dangerous.

Often confused with

てください is an ordinary polite request; お〜ください is the more respectful form used to customers and guests.

Please wait a moment.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(humble) I do (for you)

Lowers the speaker when doing something for, or toward, a superior or a customer. お goes before the ます stem, then する; words of Chinese origin take ご: ご案内あんないする. More humble still: お〜いたす.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Chinese-origin word
More humble

  1. That looks heavy. Shall I carry it for you?

  2. I'll show you to the meeting room.

  3. I'll send you the photos tomorrow.

Often confused with

お〜する is for your own action toward someone (humble); お〜になる is for the other person's action (honorific).

The company president is asking for you.

N4 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N4).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

special humble verbs

Some common verbs have their own humble form, for the speaker's own actions toward a superior or customer: 参まいる (go, come), いたす (do), 申もうす (say), いただく (eat, drink, receive), 拝見はいけんする (see), おる (be).

How it attaches
行いく, 来くる
する
言いう
食たべる, もらう
いる

  1. My name is Tanaka.

  2. I'll come at three tomorrow.

  3. Well then, I'll gladly have some.

Often confused with

Humble verbs lower your own actions; honorific verbs raise the other person's. 先生せんせいが参まいりました is a common mistake; say いらっしゃいました.

The teacher has arrived.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

there is; is (very polite)

The very polite forms of ある and です, used by staff to customers and in formal speech. ございます replaces あります; でございます replaces です. They make the sentence formal but raise no one, so a customer is asked 田中たなか様さまでいらっしゃいますか, not でございますか. ございます also ends set phrases: ありがとうございます.

How it attaches
ある
です
Set phrases

  1. The restroom is on the second floor.

  2. This is the meeting room.

  3. Are there any other questions?

Often confused with

です and あります are ordinary polite forms; でございます and ございます are the formal forms used in service and on formal occasions.

The restroom is on the second floor.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

easy to (do); likely to; tend to

Attaches to the ます stem and makes an い-adjective: 読よみやすい (easy to read). With things that happen by themselves it means "tends to": 壊こわれやすい (breaks easily).

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Tends to
Before a noun

  1. This book has big print and is easy to read.

  2. This is a quiet town and an easy place to live.

  3. This glass breaks easily, so please be careful.

Often confused with

やすい is "easy to"; にくい is "hard to". Both attach to the ます stem.

This book has small print and is hard to read.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

hard to (do); difficult to

Attach to the ます stem and make an い-adjective. にくい says something is hard to do or does not easily happen; づらい stresses that it is hard for the person, physically or emotionally.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Hard for the person

  1. This pen is hard to write with.

  2. What he says is a little hard to follow.

  3. There are things that are hard to say to a teacher.

Often confused with

にくい is "hard to"; やすい is "easy to".

This pen is easy to write with.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

begin to (do); start (doing)

Attaches to the ます stem and marks the start of an action or change. It changes like a る-verb.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Past

  1. I started learning Japanese three years ago.

  2. It has started to rain.

  3. I only started reading this book yesterday.

Often confused with

始はじめる is a neutral start, often planned; 出だす is a sudden start that happens unexpectedly, and is not used for your own planned actions.

It suddenly began to rain.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

suddenly begin to (do); burst out (doing)

Attaches to the ます stem and marks a sudden, often unexpected start: 泣なき出だす (burst into tears). It is not used for a planned start of your own, or with requests.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Past

  1. The child suddenly burst into tears.

  2. Hearing that story, everyone burst out laughing.

  3. The car suddenly started moving.

Often confused with

出だす is sudden and unplanned; 始はじめる is neutral and can be planned: 明日あしたから走はしり始はじめる.

I'll start running every morning from tomorrow.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

finish (doing)

Attaches to the ます stem and says an action has been carried through to its end.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Past

  1. When you finish reading this book, please lend it to me.

  2. I've finished eating dinner.

  3. Those who have finished writing their essays, please hand them in.

Often confused with

終おわる says simply that an action reached its end; てしまう can add that it is completely done, or a sense of regret.

I read the whole book.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

keep (doing); continue (doing)

Attaches to the ます stem and says an action goes on without stopping. It changes like a る-verb. For rain, the intransitive 〜続つづく is more usual: 雨あめが降ふり続つづく.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Past

  1. The baby has been crying since this morning.

  2. I kept walking for an hour and got tired.

  3. I want to keep studying Japanese.

Often confused with

ている describes an action in progress at a moment; 続つづける stresses that it goes on and on.

It's raining.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(do) again; redo (to do it better)

Attaches to the ます stem and means doing something over again, usually to correct or improve it.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Past

  1. There were mistakes, so I rewrote my essay.

  2. Please think it over again.

  3. The call was cut off, so I called back.

Often confused with

もう一度いちど just repeats an action; 〜直なおす redoes it to make it right.

Please say it once more.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(someone else) shows signs of feeling; wants to (third person)

Adjectives of feeling and 〜たい describe the speaker's own feelings. For someone else, add がる to the stem: 寒さむがる (acts cold), 行いきたがる (wants to go). It changes like an う-verb, and is often used as がっている.

How it attaches
い-adjective (drop い)
な-adjective
〜たい
Now

  1. My younger brother wants a new game.

  2. Children want to play outside.

  3. My younger sister is afraid of dark places.

Often confused with

〜たい states your own wish; 〜たがる describes someone else's, as you see it.

I want to play outside.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(there is) a smell, sound, taste or feeling of

Describes something sensed: a smell, a sound, a taste, a feeling. The thing sensed takes が: いい匂においがする.

How it attaches
Smell
Sound
Taste

  1. There's a nice smell coming from the kitchen.

  2. There was a strange noise outside.

  3. This tea tastes like flowers.

Often confused with

〜がする is something actually sensed; 〜ような気きがする is a vague feeling or hunch.

I have a feeling someone is watching me.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

-ness (turning an adjective into a noun)

Replaces the い of an い-adjective, or follows the stem of a な-adjective, to make a measurable noun: 高たかさ (height), 大切たいせつさ (importance). いい becomes よさ.

How it attaches
い-adjective (drop い)
な-adjective
いい

  1. How high is this mountain?

  2. I came to understand how important friends are.

  3. Please tell me how heavy this box is.

Often confused with

さ makes a measurable quantity (重おもさ, the weight); み, on a few adjectives, makes a felt quality (重おもみ, weight as in importance).

I feel the weight of those words.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(turning a verb phrase into a noun) doing; the fact that

Turns a verb phrase into a noun so it can be a subject or object: 泳およぐことが好すきだ, 趣味しゅみは読よむことです. In many sentences の can replace it, but こと is needed before です and in set patterns such as 〜ことができる.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Before です
Set patterns

  1. My hobby is taking photos.

  2. Speaking a foreign language is difficult.

  3. Nobody knew that he wasn't coming.

Often confused with

With verbs of seeing and hearing, and before 好すき or 上手じょうず, の is usual: 鳥とりが鳴なくのを聞きいた. Before です, こと is needed.

I heard the children singing.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

the fact that; that (a stated fact or idea)

Turns a whole statement into a noun, and stresses its content: "the fact that ...". It also asks or explains what something means: どういうことですか (what do you mean?).

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Noun + だ
Asking the meaning

  1. I learned today that he had quit his job.

  2. What matters is practicing every day.

  3. "Tomorrow is a holiday." "You mean there's no class?"

Often confused with

こと turns an action into a noun; ということ wraps a whole stated fact or idea, and puts weight on its content.

Practicing every day is important.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

called; named; (a thing) called

Names something the listener may not know: AというB means "a B called A". It also introduces the content of a story, a rumor or news: 彼かれが結婚けっこんするという話はなし.

How it attaches
Name + という + noun
Content + という + noun

  1. I'm waiting at a shop called Sakura in front of the station.

  2. What is this flower called?

  3. I heard that he is going to quit his job.

Often confused with

って is the casual form of という in speech: 山田やまだって人ひと.

Someone called Yamada phoned you.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

I think (that)

Gives the speaker's opinion or guess, after a plain form; nouns and な-adjectives keep だ: 雨あめだと思おもう. For someone else's opinion, use と思おもっている. と思おもいます is a common way to soften a statement.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective + だ
Someone else

  1. I think it will be sunny tomorrow.

  2. I think this movie is good.

  3. My older brother is hoping to buy a car next year.

Often confused with

Plain form + と思おもう is an opinion or a guess; the volitional + と思おもう is your own plan.

I'm planning to get up early tomorrow.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

I heard that; (someone) said that

Reports what you heard, naming the source with から or に: 先生せんせいから〜と聞ききました. と言いっていました passes on what someone said, often as a message.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Noun + だ
Passing on a message

  1. I heard from the teacher that there's no class tomorrow.

  2. I heard that restaurant is good.

  3. Mr. Tanaka said he'll be a little late.

Often confused with

と聞きいた names that you heard it, often with the source; そうだ simply passes it on as hearsay.

I hear that restaurant is good.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

it is said that; people say that

Presents a widely held view or a general claim, not tied to one speaker. It is common in explanations and written Japanese.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective + だ

  1. Japanese food is said to be good for your health.

  2. This temple is said to have been built a thousand years ago.

  3. People who eat breakfast are said to be full of energy.

Often confused with

と言いわれている is a general claim that many people make; そうだ passes on something you heard from one source.

According to the forecast, it will rain tomorrow.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(casual) called; (someone) said; as for

A casual form used in speech. It stands for という (called), for と言いった or そうだ (quoting, hearsay), and as a casual topic marker.

How it attaches
Called
Quoting
Topic

  1. Mr. Tanaka says he can't come tomorrow.

  2. Do you know a shop called "Sakura"?

  3. Japanese is hard, but it's interesting, isn't it?

Often confused with

って is casual speech; という is the neutral form, used in writing and polite speech.

There was a call from a Mr. Yamada.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N5, another at N4.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

whether (or not); (an embedded question)

Puts a question inside a sentence. A yes-no question takes かどうか; a question with a question word takes か alone: いつ来くるか知しらない. Nouns and な-adjectives take no だ before it.

How it attaches
Yes-no question
Question word
Noun, な-adjective (no だ)

  1. I don't know yet whether I can go tomorrow.

  2. Do you know what time he's coming?

  3. I'll check whether that story is true.

Often confused with

At the end of a sentence か asks the listener; inside a sentence, 〜か and 〜かどうか hold a question that the main verb (know, ask, check) is about.

What time is he coming?

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

I wonder (if)

Voices a question to yourself, or asks softly. かな is used by everyone in casual speech; かしら is softer and heard mostly from women. With a negative, 〜ないかな expresses a wish: 早はやく来こないかな.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Noun, な-adjective (no だ)
A wish
Softer

  1. I wonder if it'll be sunny tomorrow.

  2. I wonder if he's home by now.

  3. I wish summer vacation would hurry up and come.

Often confused with

かな wonders aloud and is unsure; でしょう states a guess.

It will probably be sunny tomorrow.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

isn't it ...? (asking you to agree); why, it's ...!; (reproach) you know ...!

Not a negative here: it puts something forward as plain to see. Said with a rise, it asks the listener to agree: 安やすいじゃない？ Said with a fall, it shows surprise at what you find (あ、雨あめじゃないか) or reproach (だから言いったじゃないか: I told you!). With the volitional, 〜ようじゃないか proposes something together. Politely: 〜じゃないですか; in writing or formal speech: 〜ではないか.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun
な-adjective
Volitional
Polite

  1. Oh, if it isn't Mr. Tanaka! It's been a long time.

  2. I told you so!

  3. This place is cheap and good, don't you think?

Often confused with

Plain じゃない is a negative. After a verb or an い-adjective, じゃない can only be the "isn't it" use: 言いったじゃない, 安やすいじゃない. After a noun or a な-adjective it can be either, and the voice tells them apart: the negative drops in pitch after な; the "isn't it" use has no drop, and ends rising to ask, or falling for surprise or reproach.

This isn't my bag.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(casual question marker)

A casual question marker, used mostly by men or toward children, and sounding gentle or old-fashioned. For questions with a question word, だい is used instead: 何なんだい.

How it attaches
Yes-no question
With a question word

  1. Are you doing well?

  2. Have you finished your homework yet?

Often confused with

か is the neutral question marker in polite speech; かい is casual and sounds gentle or old-fashioned.

Have you finished your homework yet?

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

and so on; and the like; such as

Ends a list of examples, or gives one example and implies others. With a noun alone it can soften what you say or play it down: お茶ちゃなどいかがですか.

How it attaches
After a list
One example

  1. There are books, notebooks and so on on the desk.

  2. I like old towns such as Kyoto and Nara.

  3. Would you care for some tea?

Often confused with

や joins the examples; など closes the list. They often appear together: AやBなど.

I bought books, notebooks and so on.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

things like A and B; A, B and so on (casual)

A casual way to list examples, nouns or actions. It can also leave a statement vague: 明日あした来くるとか言いっていた (he said something like he'd come tomorrow).

How it attaches
Nouns
Verbs (plain)

  1. On my days off I do things like watch movies and read books.

  2. You should eat more things like vegetables and fruit.

  3. He said something about coming tomorrow.

Often confused with

や joins nouns in neutral speech or writing; とか is casual and can also join verbs and whole clauses.

Let's eat vegetables, fruit and so on.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

only; nothing but (with a negative verb)

Stresses that there is no more than this, often with a sense that it is too little. しか always takes a negative verb, and it replaces が and を; other particles stay before it: 日本にほんでしか.

How it attaches
Noun
Number
After a particle

  1. I only have a hundred yen in my wallet.

  2. In the morning I drink nothing but coffee.

  3. You can only buy these sweets in Japan.

Often confused with

だけ is neutral and takes either a positive or a negative; しか needs a negative and stresses that it is not enough.

I have just a hundred yen in my wallet.

N4 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N4).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

nothing but; only (too much of one thing)

Says that one thing makes up all or most of something, usually with criticism: 肉にくばかり食たべる. With the て form, 〜てばかりいる means "do nothing but".

How it attaches
Noun
Verb (て form)

  1. My younger brother eats nothing but meat and won't eat vegetables.

  2. On my days off I do nothing but sleep.

  3. It's been raining nonstop lately, hasn't it?

Often confused with

だけ neutrally limits to one thing; ばかり says there is too much of one thing, and usually criticizes.

I bought only meat.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

just by (doing); with just

Says that one small thing is enough to bring about a result: 聞きくだけでわかる.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Noun

  1. Just listening to this song cheers me up.

  2. Just thinking about it is fun.

  3. It's impossible to do this job alone.

Often confused with

だけ limits ("only"); だけで says that the small thing alone is enough for a result.

Only one person came.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

by (a time); before (a deadline)

Sets a deadline: the action happens at some point before then. Do not confuse it with まで, which means an action continues until then.

How it attaches
Time
Verb (dictionary form)

  1. Please hand in the homework by Friday.

  2. Be home by ten at night.

  3. I want to get good at cooking before I get married.

Often confused with

まで says an action continues up to a point; までに sets a deadline for an action done once.

I'll study at the library until five.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

while; during (the whole time); during (at some point)

間あいだ alone means the whole length of a period: something goes on throughout. 間あいだに means at some point within it. Nouns take の: 夏休なつやすみの間あいだ.

How it attaches
Whole period
Some point in it
Noun + の

  1. I was back home for the whole summer vacation.

  2. While my mother was out shopping, I cleaned the room.

  3. I was reading a book the whole time I was waiting.

Often confused with

間あいだに marks a set period; うちに stresses doing something before a situation changes: 若わかいうちに.

I want to go to many countries while I'm young.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

after (doing); later

Places an event after another. The verb before it is in the た form, even for the future: 食たべた後あとで. Nouns take の: 授業じゅぎょうの後あとで. Alone, 後あとで means "later".

How it attaches
Verb (た form)
Noun + の
Alone ("later")

  1. After work was over, we went for a drink.

  2. Please take the medicine after meals.

  3. I'm busy now, so I'll call you later.

Often confused with

てから stresses the order (only after A, then B); 〜後あとで simply places B later in time.

Wash your hands first, then eat.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

around; about (a point in time)

Gives an approximate point in time: 三時さんじごろ, 来月らいげつの中なかごろ. It attaches directly to the time word; ごろに is also possible.

How it attaches
Clock time
Date, season

  1. I get up around seven every morning.

  2. The cherry trees bloom around the end of March.

  3. About what time will you be home?

Often confused with

ごろ is "around" a point in time; ぐらい is "about" an amount or a length of time.

I walk for about an hour every morning.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

in case (of); if (a situation arises)

Sets out a possible situation and what to do in it. It is common in rules, notices and instructions, and sounds more formal than たら.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Noun + の
い-adjective

  1. In case of rain, the sports day will be canceled.

  2. If you will be late, be sure to let us know.

  3. In case of fire, do not use the elevator.

Often confused with

場合ばあいは sets out one possible situation, often in rules and notices; たら is the everyday "if" or "when".

If it rains, let's stay home.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

need to; it is necessary (to); (something) is needed

A verb in the dictionary form takes 必要ひつようがある (need to do); a noun takes が必要ひつようだ (is needed). The negative 〜必要ひつようはない means "there's no need to".

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Noun
No need

  1. You need to make a reservation at this restaurant.

  2. You need a passport to travel abroad.

  3. There's still time, so there's no need to hurry.

Often confused with

必要ひつようがある states a need, often for a goal; なければならない states an obligation more strongly.

You have to take your passport.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

must; have to

The ば form of ない plus ならない or いけない: "if (you) don't, it won't do". ならない sounds more formal or general; いけない is common in speech. Casual speech shortens it to 〜なきゃ, as it shortens 〜なくては to 〜なくちゃ. A sentence can also stop at 〜なければ, leaving the rest unsaid.

How it attaches
Verb (ない form → なければ)
In speech
Casual

  1. I have to get up at six tomorrow.

  2. I have to practice Japanese every day.

  3. It's late. I have to go home.

Often confused with

なければならない says something is required; なくてもいい says it is not.

You don't have to get up early tomorrow.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

not very; not much

With a negative, あまり softens it: not very, not often, not much. In speech it is often あんまり.

How it attaches
Adjective
Verb

  1. This movie wasn't very good.

  2. I don't eat much meat.

  3. I don't go out much on Sundays.

Often confused with

あまり〜ない is "not very, not much"; 全然ぜんぜん〜ない is "not at all".

This movie wasn't good at all.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

not at all; never

With a negative, 全然ぜんぜん means "not at all". In casual speech it is also heard with positive words (全然ぜんぜんいい, totally fine); keep it with the negative in careful speech and on the test.

How it attaches
Verb
Adjective

  1. I can't read Japanese newspapers at all.

  2. It's not cold at all today, is it?

  3. I didn't understand what he said at all.

Often confused with

全然ぜんぜん〜ない is a complete "not at all"; あまり〜ない is a partial "not very".

I can't read Japanese newspapers very well.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

not easily; just won't; take a long time to

With a negative, なかなか says something does not happen as easily or quickly as hoped: バスがなかなか来こない. With a positive it means "quite, rather (better than expected)", a separate use.

How it attaches
Verb (negative)
Potential (negative)

  1. The bus just won't come.

  2. I just can't seem to memorize the kanji.

  3. I had a hard time getting to sleep last night.

Often confused with

なかなか〜ない is "not as easily as hoped" (it may still happen); 全然ぜんぜん〜ない is "not at all".

The bus isn't coming at all.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(leave something) as it is; without changing; still (in a state)

Says a state continues unchanged while something else happens, often when it should have changed: 電気でんきをつけたまま寝ねた. Verbs take the た or ない form; nouns take の; い-adjectives go straight before it, and な-adjectives take な.

How it attaches
Verb (た form)
Verb (ない form)
Noun + の
い-adjective
な-adjective + な

  1. I fell asleep with the lights on.

  2. Please don't come into the room with your shoes on.

  3. Please leave the window open.

Often confused with

Aて B just puts two actions in order; Aたまま B says the state from A stays unchanged during B, often when it should not.

I turned off the lights and went to bed.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

every other; at intervals of

After a number, it gives the gap between repeats. With days, 一日いちにちおきに means every other day. With distances and short times, 五分ごふんおきに is commonly understood as "every five minutes".

How it attaches
Number + counter
Distance

  1. I swim at the pool every other day.

  2. The bus comes every ten minutes.

  3. Trees have been planted along the street every ten meters.

Often confused with

With days, 一日いちにちおきに is "every other day" (one day skipped), but 一日いちにちごとに is "every day, day by day".

It gets colder day by day.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

every; each; with each

After a number or a noun, it marks a regular repeat or each unit: 一時間いちじかんごとに (every hour), 国くにごとに (country by country). After a verb, it means "every time": 会あうごとに.

How it attaches
Number + counter
Noun
Verb (dictionary form)

  1. Take this medicine every six hours.

  2. Customs differ from country to country.

  3. Every time I see him, he's taller.

Often confused with

ごとに is "every" (each unit); おきに is "at intervals of", and with days it means one is skipped.

Please water the flowers every other day.

N4 Level lists disagree on this one: one widely used list puts it at N4, another at N3.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

make (something) ...; change (something) to

Someone changes something on purpose. い-adjectives change い to く (短みじかくする); な-adjectives and nouns take に (静しずかにする). Compare なる, a change that just happens.

How it attaches
い-adjective
な-adjective
Noun

  1. I had my hair cut short.

  2. Please be quiet in the library.

  3. Could you turn the volume down a little?

Often confused with

する is a change someone makes; なる is a change that happens: 部屋へやを暖あたたかくする, but 部屋へやが暖あたたかくなる.

The room has warmed up.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

look (like); seem (from how it looks)

Says how something or someone looks to the speaker. Nouns and な-adjectives take に; い-adjectives take く: 若わかく見みえる.

How it attaches
Noun
な-adjective
い-adjective

  1. The teacher looks young.

  2. That person looks like a student but is actually a teacher.

  3. In those clothes you look like a grown-up.

Often confused with

に見みえる says how someone or something appears, often in contrast to reality; そうだ is a judgment of what seems to be the case or about to happen.

This cake looks delicious.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

notice; realize

The thing noticed takes に. A clause can be noticed too, with こと or の: 間違まちがえたことに気きがつく. 気きづく is a common equivalent.

How it attaches
Noun
Clause + こと, の

  1. After I got home, I noticed my wallet was missing.

  2. No one noticed his mistake.

  3. Only when the teacher said so did I finally realize what mattered.

Often confused with

気きがつく is to notice; 気きにする is to mind or worry about something.

Don't worry about small mistakes.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

made of; made from

When you can still see the material in the product, use で: 木きで作つくる. When the material changes and cannot be seen, use から: 米こめから作つくる. The same particles go with できる.

How it attaches
Material you can see
Material that changes
With できる

  1. I made this desk out of wood.

  2. Sake is made from rice.

  3. This doll is made of paper.

Often confused with

で for a material is one use of the same で that marks a means or tool: はしで食たべる (eat with chopsticks).

I eat with chopsticks.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

so; besides; even so; or (linking sentences)

These link a sentence to the one before. それで gives a result (so, and then); それに adds one more point (besides); それでも concedes and goes on (even so); または offers an alternative (or), and is a little formal.

How it attaches
Result
Adding a point
Even so
Alternative

  1. I had a fever yesterday. So I stayed home from school.

  2. This room is spacious. Besides, it's close to the station.

  3. I explained it many times. Even so, he didn't understand.

Often confused with

そして and それから simply add or continue; それで says the second sentence is a result of the first.

Yesterday I went shopping. Then I saw a movie.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

the one who/what/where ... is ...; it is ... that ...

Turns the first part of a sentence into a noun with のは, and puts the important information at the end: 昨日きのう来きたのは田中たなかさんです (the one who came yesterday was Tanaka). It also gives a reason: 〜のは〜からだ.

How it attaches
Verb (plain) + のは
Reason

  1. The one who walks the dog every morning is my father.

  2. It was last spring that I came to Japan.

  3. The reason I was late is that the train stopped.

Often confused with

A plain は sentence starts from a known topic; 〜のは〜だ moves the key information to the end to stress it.

My father walks the dog every morning.

N4 Only one of the two widely used lists we compared gives this its own entry (at N4).

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

you could say; one might call it

Offers a description as fair, though perhaps a little strong: "it's no exaggeration to call it". It follows plain forms and nouns.

How it attaches
Noun
Verb (plain)
い-adjective

  1. You could call this town my second home.

  2. You could say he's the most famous person in this town.

  3. You could say the work is almost done.

Often confused with

と言いってもいい offers a fair description; と言いっても ("although I say") limits what was just said.

I say I can cook, but only simple things.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

N345 notes

the more ..., the more ...

Says that as one thing increases, another changes with it. The same word is repeated: first in the ば form, then in the plain form before ほど. な-adjectives use なら〜なほど.

How it attaches
Verb
い-adjective
な-adjective

  1. The more you practice, the better you get.

  2. The closer a room is to the station, the higher the rent.

  3. The more I thought about it, the less I understood.

Often confused with

ば〜ほど states a proportion, and B can be an opinion; につれて describes a gradual change happening alongside another, observed over time.

As time went by, the town changed too.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

not as ... as

Compares two things by saying the first does not reach the level of the second: 今年ことしは去年きょねんほど暑あつくない (this year is not as hot as last year). The verb or adjective is always negative.

How it attaches
Noun
Verb (plain)

  1. This winter isn't as cold as last year's.

  2. The exam wasn't as hard as I'd expected.

  3. I'm not as tall as my older brother.

Often confused with

より〜のほうが says which is more; ほど〜ない says one is less than the other, and always takes a negative.

This year is colder than last year.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

should; ought to; should not

Gives the speaker's view of what is right or proper. It follows the dictionary form; する can become すべき. It is an opinion, not a rule: for laws and requirements, use なければならない.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
する
Negative

  1. If you think you were wrong, you should apologize right away.

  2. Students ought to read more books.

  3. You shouldn't speak ill of others.

Often confused with

べきだ says what someone ought to do; はずだ says what the speaker expects to be true.

He should have arrived by now.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

should; all you need to do is; (with のに) I wish

Gives or asks for a simple solution: どうすればいいですか (what should I do?), 聞きけばいい (just ask). With のに at the end, it expresses a wish or a mild complaint about someone else: 言いえばいいのに.

How it attaches
Verb (ば form)
Asking
A wish, a complaint

  1. If there's something you don't understand, just ask the teacher.

  2. How should I get to the station?

  3. If you're tired, you should just go to bed early.

Often confused with

ばいい offers a simple way out, "all it takes is"; たほうがいい recommends one choice over another.

If you're tired, you'd better go to bed early.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

I hope (that); it would be nice if

Expresses a hope about something outside the speaker's control: 明日あした晴はれるといいね. With のに or なあ at the end it becomes a wish that is unlikely or did not come true: もっと時間じかんがあるといいのに.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Verb (た form)
A wish

  1. I hope it's sunny tomorrow.

  2. I hope I can pass the exam.

  3. I wish every day were Sunday.

Often confused with

といい hopes something will happen; てほしい wants a particular person to do something.

I want my mother to get well soon.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

while (before something changes); while (and without noticing)

Has two uses. Do something while a state lasts, before it changes: 若わかいうちに, 暗くらくならないうちに. Or something happens, unnoticed, while another action goes on: 話はなしているうちに眠ねむくなった.

How it attaches
い-adjective
Verb (ない form)
Noun + の
Verb (ている)

  1. I want to visit many countries while I'm young.

  2. Let's go home before it starts to rain.

  3. I fell asleep while reading a book.

Often confused with

間あいだに marks a period with clear limits; うちに stresses doing something before the situation changes, or a change that creeps in.

I learned to drive during the summer vacation.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

in the middle of; right while

Says something happened right in the middle of an action, usually interrupting it. Verbs take the ている form; nouns take の.

How it attaches
Verb (ている)
Noun + の

  1. The phone rang right in the middle of the meal.

  2. I started to feel sick in the middle of the exam.

  3. Right while we were talking, the lights suddenly went out.

Often confused with

間あいだに is any time within a period; 最中さいちゅうに is the very middle of an action, usually with an interruption.

It seems it rained while I was asleep.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

in the middle of (ちゅう); throughout, all over (じゅう)

After an action noun, 中ちゅう means "in progress": 会議中かいぎちゅう, 工事中こうじちゅう. After a time or place word, 中じゅう means "throughout" or "all over": 一日中いちにちじゅう, 世界中せかいじゅう. 今日中きょうじゅうに means "by the end of today".

How it attaches
In progress (ちゅう)
Throughout a time (じゅう)
All over a place (じゅう)
Within a time (じゅう)

  1. The department manager is in a meeting right now.

  2. It rained all day yesterday.

  3. Please finish this work by the end of today.

Often confused with

中ちゅう labels a state in progress (often on signs: 工事中こうじちゅう); 最中さいちゅうに stresses the very middle of an action, usually with an interruption.

The phone rang in the middle of the meeting.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

in order to; for (the sake of); because of

Has two uses. Purpose: an aim the subject acts on, with the same subject in both parts (家いえを買かうために働はたらく). Cause, often formal, for a result already fixed (雨あめのために中止ちゅうしになった). Nouns take の.

How it attaches
Purpose (dictionary form)
For a person, a goal
Cause

  1. I'm studying Japanese in order to work in Japan.

  2. I make a packed lunch for my child every morning.

  3. The trains stopped because of the heavy snow.

Often confused with

ために is for an action you choose to do; ように is for an aim that is a state or outside your control (聞きこえるように, 忘わすれないように).

I'll write it in my planner so I don't forget.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

as (one thing changes, another changes too)

Says that as A changes over time, B changes along with it. A is a word of change (増ふえる, 年としをとる, 近ちかづく). It describes a gradual process, not a single event.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Noun of change

  1. As the exam got closer, I grew more anxious.

  2. As I've gotten older, I've started waking up early.

  3. The higher we climbed, the colder the air became.

Often confused with

につれて describes two changes running together over time; ば〜ほど states a proportion, and can end in an opinion or a rule.

The more you study Japanese, the more interesting it gets.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

according to (a source)

Names the source of information. The sentence usually ends with a hearsay form: そうだ, らしい or ということだ.

How it attaches
Source
Written, formal

  1. According to the weather forecast, it will snow tomorrow.

  2. According to the newspaper, there was a fire near the station.

  3. According to my friend, that shop is closing next month.

Often confused with

によると names where information came from; によって gives a cause, a means, the doer of a passive, or "depending on".

Ways of thinking differ from person to person.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

depending on; by (the doer of a passive); due to; by means of

Has several uses: "depending on" (国くにによって違ちがう); the doer in a formal passive, for things made, found or written; a cause (事故じこによる遅おくれ); a means. Before a noun it becomes による.

How it attaches
Depending on
Doer of a passive
Cause, before a noun

  1. Customs differ from country to country.

  2. This novel was written by a famous author.

  3. Because of an accident, the trains stopped for an hour.

Often confused with

によって gives a cause, a means, a doer or "depending on"; によると names a source of information.

According to the teacher, there's a test next week.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

about; concerning; on (a topic)

Marks the topic that speaking, thinking, writing or studying is about. Before a noun it becomes についての.

How it attaches
Noun
Before a noun

  1. I'm researching Japanese history.

  2. I talked with my parents about my future.

  3. I read a book about Japanese culture.

Often confused with

について is the topic of talk or thought ("about"); に対たいして is the target of an action or attitude ("toward"), or a contrast.

He is kind to everyone.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

toward; against; to; in contrast to

Marks the person or thing that an action, feeling or attitude is aimed at: 先生せんせいに対たいして失礼しつれいだ. It also sets two things in contrast: 兄あにが静しずかなのに対たいして、弟おとうとはにぎやかだ. Before a noun it becomes に対たいする.

How it attaches
Target
Before a noun
Contrast

  1. You mustn't speak to a teacher like that.

  2. He gave no answer to my question.

  3. My older brother is quiet, whereas my younger brother is very lively.

Often confused with

に対たいして is the target of an action or attitude; にとって is whose point of view a judgment is made from.

To me, my family is the most important thing.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

for; to (from someone's point of view)

Marks whose standpoint a judgment is made from. The sentence ends with an evaluation: 大切たいせつだ, 難むずかしい, ありがたい. It is not used with actions done toward someone.

How it attaches
Person
Group

  1. To me, this photo is a treasure.

  2. Honorific language is hard for foreigners.

  3. For children, the summer holidays are the most fun time of all.

Often confused with

にとって gives a point of view for a judgment; に対たいして marks who an action or attitude is directed at.

Please speak politely to customers.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

as (in the role, position or capacity of)

Marks the role, status or category in which someone or something acts or is seen. Before a noun it becomes としての.

How it attaches
Role
Category
Before a noun

  1. I came to Japan as an exchange student.

  2. This town is famous as a hot spring resort.

  3. I have to think about my responsibilities as a parent.

Often confused with

として is the role or capacity something acts in; にとって is whose viewpoint a judgment comes from.

For exchange students, finding a place to live is hard.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

compared with; in comparison to

Sets a standard of comparison, often for a change or a difference in degree: 去年きょねんに比くらべて暖あたたかい. It is more formal than より.

How it attaches
Noun
Written, formal

  1. This summer is hotter than last year's.

  2. Compared with Tokyo, prices in this town are low.

  3. Compared with his older brother, the younger brother is a good cook.

Often confused with

より is the everyday comparison; に比くらべて is more formal and stresses a difference measured against a standard.

This summer is hotter than last year's.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

that's why; no wonder; so it means

Draws a natural conclusion from a fact just learned: "so that explains it". It also restates something in other words: つまり〜わけだ. Nouns and な-adjectives take な (in writing, also である).

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun, な-adjective + な
Restating

  1. It's snowing. No wonder it's cold.

  2. So he lived in Japan for ten years. No wonder his Japanese is good.

  3. She practices three hours a day, so of course she's getting good.

Often confused with

わけだ explains a fact you now see; はずだ predicts something you expect but have not confirmed.

She practices every day, so she should get good.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

it's not (necessarily) that; it doesn't mean that

Denies a conclusion the listener might draw, partly or wholly: 嫌きらいなわけではない (it's not that I dislike it). It softens a statement rather than flatly denying it.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Noun, な-adjective + な
Spoken

  1. It's not that I dislike meat. I just don't want any today.

  2. It's not that every Japanese person likes sushi.

  3. I'm busy, but it's not as if I have no time at all.

Often confused with

わけではない denies a conclusion softly or partly ("it's not that"); わけがない denies a possibility completely ("there's no way").

There's no way he'd lie.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

there's no way (that); cannot possibly

Denies a possibility completely, from the speaker's reasoning or knowledge. It is close to はずがない and is common in speech, often as わけない.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
な-adjective + な

  1. There's no way anyone can do such a hard problem in one day.

  2. There's no way she'd say something like that.

  3. There's no way I'd know the name of someone I've only just met.

Often confused with

わけがない and はずがない both deny a possibility; はずがない leans on knowledge or expectation, わけがない on reasoning, and sounds more emotional in speech.

I locked it, so it can't be open.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

cannot (because of duty, common sense or circumstances)

Says something is not possible, not because of ability but because of a social, moral or practical reason. With the ない form, 〜ないわけにはいかない means "have to, cannot avoid".

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Verb (ない form)

  1. There's an exam tomorrow, so I can't take the day off.

  2. I came by car, so I can't drink.

  3. It's my friend's wedding, so I can't not go.

Often confused with

わけにはいかない says an option is ruled out by duty or common sense; しかない says only one option is left.

There are no more buses, so I have no choice but to take a taxi home.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

there's no need to; you don't have to

Tells someone that an action is unnecessary, often to reassure them: 心配しんぱいすることはない. It follows the dictionary form.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Polite

  1. It's a small mistake, so there's no need to worry.

  2. There's still time, so you don't have to hurry.

  3. You don't have to do it all on your own. I'll help.

Often confused with

なくてもいい neutrally says something is not required; ことはない tells the listener not to bother, often to reassure them.

You don't have to come tomorrow.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

have no choice but to; can only

Says that there is only one option left. It follows the dictionary form, and suggests the speaker accepts it, sometimes reluctantly.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Polite

  1. The bus isn't coming, so I'll have to walk home.

  2. If nobody will help, I'll just have to do it myself.

  3. It's broken, so the only option is to buy a new one.

Often confused with

Noun + しか〜ない means "only (this much)"; dictionary form + しかない means "the only thing to do is".

I only have a thousand yen in my wallet.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

because of; due to (a bad result, with blame)

Gives the cause of a bad result and puts the blame on it. Nouns take の; な-adjectives take な. せいか means "perhaps because".

How it attaches
Noun + の
Verb (plain)
Perhaps because

  1. The game was called off because of the rain.

  2. I overslept and missed the train.

  3. Maybe because I'm tired, I have a headache today.

Often confused with

せいで blames a cause for a bad result; おかげで thanks a cause for a good one.

Thanks to my teacher, I passed the exam.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

thanks to; because of (a good result)

Gives the cause of a good result with gratitude. Nouns take の. Used of a bad result it becomes sarcastic. おかげさまで is a set phrase: "thanks to you (I'm fine)".

How it attaches
Noun + の
Verb (plain)
Set phrase

  1. Thanks to my friend's help, I finished early.

  2. Thanks to practicing every day, I got good at it.

  3. "How are you?" "Fine, thank you."

Often confused with

おかげで credits a cause for a good result; せいで blames a cause for a bad one.

Because my friend was late, we missed the start of the movie.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

even though (with criticism or contempt)

Like のに, but it criticizes the subject: "even though they ..., they ...". The two parts have the same subject, and it is used of others, not oneself. It can sound rude.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Noun + の
な-adjective + な

  1. He knows, yet he won't tell me.

  2. He does nothing himself, yet all he does is complain.

  3. Don't talk back like that; you're just a kid.

Often confused with

のに shows surprise or regret and can be about yourself; くせに criticizes someone else.

Even though I studied hard, I didn't pass.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

every time; whenever

Says that every time A happens, B happens too. Verbs take the dictionary form; nouns take の.

How it attaches
Verb (dictionary form)
Noun + の

  1. Every time I hear this song, I think of my family back home.

  2. Every time he travels, he brings me back a souvenir.

  3. Whenever I see my grandmother, she says I've grown taller.

Often confused with

とき marks one occasion; たびに says something happens on every occasion, without exception.

When I went to Kyoto, I saw an old temple.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

the moment (that); just as

Says that right after A, something sudden and unexpected B happened. It follows the た form. B is something the speaker observed, not a planned action, so it cannot be a request or an intention.

How it attaches
Verb (た form)
With に

  1. The moment I left the house, it started to rain.

  2. As soon as I opened the window, a cold wind blew in.

  3. The moment he sat down, he fell asleep.

Often confused with

てすぐ simply says one thing happens soon after another and can describe your own plans; たとたん stresses a sudden, unexpected change.

I took a shower right after I got home.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

while (doing something anyway); on the way

Says you take the chance of one action to also do another. Verbs take the dictionary or た form; nouns take の.

How it attaches
Noun + の
Verb (plain)

  1. While I was out shopping, I stopped by the post office.

  2. Since you're going to the convenience store, could you pick up some milk?

  3. While I was in Tokyo on business, I met up with a friend.

Often confused with

ながら is doing two things at the same moment; ついでに is using one trip or task as the chance to do another.

I walked while listening to music.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

-ish; like; tending to

Makes an い-adjective. After a noun it means "looks or feels like": 子こどもっぽい (childish). After a ます stem it means "tends to": 忘わすれっぽい (forgetful). It is casual and often slightly negative.

How it attaches
Noun
Color
Verb (ます stem)

  1. He's an adult, yet there's something childish about him.

  2. I've become forgetful lately, and it's a problem.

  3. A person in a whitish shirt came.

Often confused with

っぽい says something looks or feels like X, without really being it; Noun + らしい means having the typical qualities of X (男おとこらしい: manly).

It's a warm day, just like spring should be.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

tend to; be prone to (usually something bad)

Says something happens often or easily, usually something undesirable. It attaches to the ます stem or a noun, and works like a な-adjective: がちな, がちだ.

How it attaches
Verb (ます stem)
Noun
Before a noun

  1. In winter people tend not to get enough exercise.

  2. I was often sick as a child.

  3. When I'm busy, my meals tend to become irregular.

Often confused with

がち is something that happens often; 気味ぎみ is a slight tendency or sign felt now.

I have a touch of a cold today.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

a touch of; slightly; tending to

Says there is a slight sign or degree of something, usually unwelcome: 風邪かぜ気味ぎみ (a bit of a cold), 疲つかれ気味ぎみ (a little tired). It attaches to nouns and ます stems.

How it attaches
Noun
Verb (ます stem)
Before a noun

  1. I have a touch of a cold, so I'll go to bed early today.

  2. Work has been busy lately, and I'm a bit tired.

  3. The trains are running a little late, so I'm a bit worried.

Often confused with

気味ぎみ is a slight sign felt at the moment; がち is a tendency for something to happen often.

He tends to be late for appointments.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

without (doing)

A written or more formal form of 〜ないで. It attaches where ない would: 食たべずに, 行いかずに. The exception is する, which becomes せずに.

How it attaches
う-verb
る-verb
する

  1. I left home without eating breakfast.

  2. Try reading this passage without using a dictionary.

  3. He went home without saying anything.

Often confused with

ないで and ずに mean the same; ずに is more formal or written. Note する: しないで, but せずに.

He went home without saying anything.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

try to; be about to; (with a negative) refuse to

The volitional form plus とする. It means trying to do something, often without success, or being just about to do it: 出でかけようとしたとき. 〜ようとしない means "won't (refuses to)", said of others.

How it attaches
Verb (volitional)
Just about to
Refuses to

  1. I tried to remember, but the name wouldn't come.

  2. Just as I was about to leave the house, the phone rang.

  3. My younger brother refuses to eat vegetables.

Often confused with

ようとする is an attempt that may fail, or an action about to happen; てみる is actually doing something to see how it goes.

I tried making a new dish.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

pretend (to); act as if

Says someone acts as if something were true when it is not. Verbs take the plain form; nouns take の; な-adjectives take な.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Verb (た form)
Noun + の

  1. He saw me, but he pretended he hadn't.

  2. I didn't want anyone to talk to me, so I pretended to be asleep.

  3. You shouldn't pretend to understand when you don't.

Often confused with

ふりをする pretends something is true; まねをする copies someone else's actions.

Children imitate their parents.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

must (be); surely; no doubt

Expresses strong conviction from evidence or intuition. It follows plain forms; nouns and な-adjectives take no だ. It is a little formal or written; in speech, きっと〜と思おもう is common.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
Noun (no だ)

  1. The light is on. He must be at home.

  2. After practicing that much, she's sure to pass.

  3. This handwriting is definitely my brother's.

Often confused with

はずだ is an expectation reasoned from facts; に違ちがいない is a strong personal conviction.

The light is on, so he should be at home.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

not necessarily; not always

Says that what is generally believed is not always true. It is often paired with 必かならずしも or いつも. It follows plain forms.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
い-adjective
With 必かならずしも

  1. Expensive things are not necessarily good things.

  2. Not all Japanese people are good at honorific language.

  3. What the teacher says is not always right.

Often confused with

とは限かぎらない rejects a general rule ("not always"); わけではない rejects a conclusion the listener might draw ("it's not that").

It's not that I dislike it, but I don't eat it much.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

used to (do) (looking back fondly)

Recalls something done often in the past, usually with nostalgia. It follows the た form. Without the past (〜ものだ), it states what is natural or expected, a separate use.

How it attaches
Verb (た form)
Polite

  1. As a child, I often used to swim in this river.

  2. When I was a student, my friends and I used to talk until morning.

  3. I used to come to this shop a lot in the old days.

Often confused with

たことがある says you have done something at least once; たものだ recalls doing it often, with feeling.

I have swum in this river.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

even (an extreme example)

Gives an extreme example to imply that the rest follows: 名前なまえさえ書かけない (can't even write their name). It replaces が and を; other particles stay before it: 子こどもにさえ.

How it attaches
Noun
After a particle

  1. I'm so busy I don't even have time to eat.

  2. Even a child knows that.

  3. I was so tired I couldn't even stand up.

Often confused with

でも ("even") is everyday and neutral; さえ stresses an extreme case and is a little more emphatic.

Even a child can understand this problem.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

as long as; if only

Says that one condition is all that is needed for a result. さえ marks the condition, and the verb or adjective takes the ば form: 時間じかんさえあれば. With a verb, さえ often follows the ます stem: 謝あやまりさえすれば.

How it attaches
Noun
Verb (ます stem)
い-adjective

  1. If only I had the time, I'd travel all over the world.

  2. As long as you take the medicine, you'll get better soon.

  3. As long as you read this book, the exam will be fine.

Often confused with

ば alone states a condition; さえ〜ば stresses that this single condition is enough.

If I have time, I'd like to travel.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

(this) very one; precisely; it is ... that

Singles out one thing with strong emphasis: 今年ことしこそ (this year for sure), こちらこそ (no, it is I who ...). からこそ gives a reason with emphasis: "precisely because".

How it attaches
Noun
Set phrase
Reason

  1. This year, I'm going to pass the exam for sure.

  2. "Nice to meet you." "No, the pleasure is mine."

  3. It's precisely because I care that I'm being strict.

Often confused with

は presents a topic, often in contrast; こそ singles out one item with strong emphasis, as the very one.

I'm not taking the exam this year.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

have a feeling that; it feels as if

Expresses a vague feeling or impression, not a firm judgment. Verbs take the plain form; nouns take の.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Noun + の
Without ような

  1. I have a feeling I've met that person somewhere.

  2. I felt as if someone was watching me.

  3. I have a feeling something good will happen today.

Often confused with

と思おもう gives an opinion or a guess; ような気きがする is a vaguer feeling or hunch, with less certainty.

I think that person is a teacher.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

just like; as if

まるで stresses a comparison with ようだ or みたいだ: something is so much like X that it seems to be X, though it is not. Nouns take の before ようだ.

How it attaches
Noun + の
Verb (plain)
Casual

  1. It's as if I'm dreaming.

  2. Today's heat is just like summer.

  3. He talks as if he had seen it himself.

Often confused with

Without まるで, ようだ is usually a guess from evidence ("it seems"); まるで〜ようだ is a comparison with something it is not.

It seems someone has come.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

as; in the way (that); just as

Says something is done or happens in the same way as something else. Verbs take the plain form; nouns take の + とおり, or join directly as どおり: 予定よていどおり.

How it attaches
Verb (plain)
Noun + の
Noun + どおり

  1. Please try doing it the way the teacher said.

  2. I followed the map and found it right away.

  3. The construction finished on schedule.

Often confused with

とおりに means exactly in the same way; ように ("as") is looser and also used for comparisons and examples.

As the teacher said, practicing every day is important.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.

instead of; in place of; in exchange for

Says one person or thing takes another's place (父ちちの代かわりに), or that one thing is given in return for another (教おしえてもらう代かわりに). Nouns take の; verbs take the plain form.

How it attaches
Noun + の
Verb (plain)
Alone, at the start

  1. I attended the meeting in place of my father.

  2. In exchange for teaching English, I was taught Japanese.

  3. Let's have fish instead of meat today.

Often confused with

代かわりに puts one thing in place of another; ないで says an action is done without, or instead of, another action of the same person.

I walked instead of taking the bus.

Draft: waiting for review by a Japanese teacher.